GIFSQ Scientific Publications

We reviewed 68 FDA/USDA-linked 2026 recalls: pathogens led with 27, undeclared allergens close behind at 26. The 5 biggest cases and what plants should fix.

Published studies by Byrd-Bredbenner and colleagues on young adults' food safety knowledge, attitudes, and risky kitchen practices.

The 2010 Wright County Egg Salmonella Enteritidis outbreak — 500 million eggs recalled and the farm conditions investigators found.

Jackson et al. (2016) documented real-time whole genome sequencing for listeriosis outbreak detection — faster clusters, faster solves.

Published studies on keeping produce wash water disinfected — how sanitizer crashes cause cross-contamination and how to prevent it.

FDA's Vibrio parahaemolyticus and vulnificus risk assessments — modeling oyster risk by season, region, and post-harvest handling.

CDC's 1996 MMWR traced Vibrio vulnificus infections and deaths to raw oysters in Los Angeles — the science behind shellfish warnings.

Karmali (1989) reviewed verocytotoxin-producing E. coli — the clinical, epidemiological, and microbiological synthesis.

Published research on UV-C for food surfaces, water, and air — pathogen inactivation data, shadowing limits, and validation needs.

USDA's 2019 observational study watched consumers wash raw poultry — documenting the sink and kitchen contamination that results.

USDA FSIS's Microbiology Laboratory Guidebook — the reference methods for meat and poultry testing, and their role in verification.

USDA FSIS's Food Safety Survey tracks consumer handling practices — thermometer use, washing poultry, and risky habits over time.

Published studies on foodborne disease underreporting — the multiplier methods that estimate true illness from reported cases.

Nauta (2000) showed how to separate uncertainty and variability in quantitative microbial risk assessment — a key modeling advance.

Tam et al. (2012) IID2 study — UK's infectious intestinal disease burden, GP consultation rates, and the underreporting pyramid.

Tenter et al. (2000) reviewed Toxoplasma gondii transmission from animals to humans — undercooked meat and the food safety implications.

Published surveys on consumer thermometer use — ownership, barriers, and why color is a terrible doneness indicator.

Doyle & Mazzotta (2000) reviewed published studies on the thermal resistance of salmonellae — D-values, z-values, and what they mean for cooking.

Published studies on consumer thawing methods — why counter thawing persists, what the risks are, and safer alternatives.

Published studies evaluated steam pasteurization cabinets for beef carcasses — log reductions of E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella on carcass surfaces.

Hennekinne et al. (2012) characterized S. aureus food poisoning toxins and outbreak investigation methods in Toxins journal.

Published thermal-resistance literature on Clostridium botulinum and other sporeformers — the science behind canning and sterilization standards.

The 2006 Dole baby spinach E. coli O157:H7 outbreak — 200+ illnesses, 3 deaths, and the produce safety reckoning.

Published studies on sous vide pathogen control — time-temperature tables, spore risks, and why vacuum plus low heat needs validation.

Published studies on slow cooker heating profiles — whether low-and-slow reaches safe temperatures and the practices that matter.

Skirrow (1977) developed the selective medium that made Campylobacter isolation routine — the method behind the discovery of a major pathogen.

The 1994 Schwan's ice cream Salmonella Enteritidis outbreak — 224,000 illnesses from a tanker truck, the largest US outbreak of its era.

Published studies on school foodservice food safety — HACCP implementation, training, and inspection findings in schools.

Published studies on sanitizer rotation programs — whether alternating sanitizer chemistries improves control or just adds complexity.

Published studies comparing chlorine, quats, and other sanitizers on food-contact surfaces — efficacy data, contact times, and biofilm challenges.

The Kauffmann-White-Le Minor scheme — how Salmonella serotyping works and why serovar identity matters for outbreaks and trade.

Published studies on Salmonella's remarkable survival in peanut butter, chocolate, spices, and dried foods — months of persistence data.

D'Aoust's authoritative chapter on Salmonella in Foodborne Bacterial Pathogens (1989) consolidated the organism's food safety significance.

FDA's Salmonella Enteritidis in shell eggs risk assessment — the analysis behind the egg safety rule.

The 1996 Sakai, Japan E. coli O157:H7 outbreak — 6,000+ schoolchildren ill from radish sprouts, and the lessons for institutional feeding.

The recurring romaine lettuce E. coli O157:H7 outbreaks (2017–2019) — canal water, cattle nearby, and the industry's traceability reckoning.

Published comparisons of risk assessment predictions with observed outcomes — how well do QMRAs predict real-world illness?

Buchanan & Whiting (1998) showed how risk assessment links HACCP plans to public health outcomes in the Journal of Food Protection.

Published studies on reusable shopping bag contamination — bacterial loads from raw meats and the washing that fixes it.

Published attribution studies on foodborne illness settings — restaurants vs. homes — and what the data says about each.

CDC (2008) investigated E. coli O157:H7 in children linked to raw milk and raw colostrum from a California dairy — 6 cases, 2 with HUS.

CDC's PulseNet transitioned from PFGE to whole genome sequencing — how WGS transformed outbreak detection speed and precision.

Swaminathan et al. (2001) described PulseNet — the molecular subtyping network for foodborne disease surveillance that transformed outbreak detection.

Gerner-Smidt et al. (2006) reviewed PulseNet's first decade — outbreaks solved, lessons learned, and the future of molecular surveillance.

Published studies on pulsed light (intense light pulses) for food surfaces and packaging — inactivation data and practical limits.

Published studies on biopreservation — protective lactic acid bacteria cultures inhibiting Listeria and other pathogens in foods.

Published studies on pressure-assisted thermal sterilization — combining high pressure and heat to inactivate bacterial spores.

Ross & McMeekin (1994) introduced predictive microbiology in the International Journal of Food Microbiology — modeling pathogen behavior in foods.

The 2002 Pilgrim's Pride Listeria outbreak — 54 illnesses, 8 deaths, and the massive turkey deli meat recall.

Phage typing of Salmonella — how bacteriophage susceptibility patterns subtyped outbreaks before the genomic era.

Ribot et al. (2006) standardized PulseNet PFGE protocols — the methods paper behind comparable DNA fingerprints nationwide.

Published studies on pet food handling risks — Salmonella in pet foods and treats, and kitchen cross-contamination from pet feeding.

Published studies evaluated peracetic acid (PAA) as a produce wash and surface sanitizer — efficacy, organic tolerance, and practical use.

The 2008–2009 Peanut Corporation of America Salmonella outbreak — 700+ illnesses, 9 deaths, criminal convictions, and knowing shipment.

Published studies on aqueous and gaseous ozone in food processing — pathogen reductions, material compatibility, and safety needs.

Published studies on outdoor food safety — temperature abuse at picnics, cookouts, and the practices that prevent illness.

Gould et al. (2013) summarized a decade of US foodborne outbreak surveillance: 13,405 outbreaks and what they revealed.

Published studies evaluated lactic and acetic acid sprays on meat carcasses — pathogen reductions and how acids fit into hurdle systems.

Published studies on online grocery and meal-kit delivery — temperature abuse in transit and packaging that works.

The 2020 Salmonella Newport outbreak linked to Thomson International onions — 1,127 illnesses and the packing-shed investigation.

The 1996 Odwalla E. coli O157:H7 outbreak — unpasteurized apple juice, a child's death, and the juice HACCP rule it produced.

Ryan et al. (1986) investigated an E. coli O157:H7 nursing home outbreak — the clinical, epidemiological, and pathological findings.

Published studies on norovirus (and surrogates) surviving on stainless steel, produce, and hands — persistence data driving disinfection policy.

Patel et al. (2008) systematically reviewed the literature and showed noroviruses drive a large share of sporadic gastroenteritis worldwide.

Glass, Parashar & Estes (2009) reviewed norovirus gastroenteritis in the NEJM — why it's the leading cause of foodborne illness and so hard to control.

Published methods for detecting norovirus in foods — RT-PCR approaches, concentration challenges, and what detection means.

Published studies on nisin against Listeria, Clostridium, and Staphylococcus in foods — efficacy data for this natural bacteriocin.

Sears et al. (2011) documented New Zealand's campylobacteriosis decline — how poultry interventions cut human illness dramatically.

The 2009 Nestlé Toll House cookie dough E. coli O157:H7 outbreak — raw flour as the vehicle, and the industry's flour reckoning.

CDC/FDA/USDA NARMS monitors antimicrobial resistance in foodborne pathogens — trends, findings, and why it matters for food safety.

The MPN method estimates pathogen numbers in food — how it works, when to use it, and what the numbers mean.

Published studies on how MAP (CO2, vacuum, high-oxygen) affects pathogen growth and survival — what the gas mix does and doesn't do.

Modern Food Microbiology (7th ed., 2005) by Jay, Loessner & Golden remains a cornerstone textbook for food microbiology students and professionals.

Maiden et al.'s MLST method — sequencing housekeeping genes to type pathogens with portable, comparable data.

Pasteurization studies established HTST parameters (161°F/15 sec) — the thermal science that made milk safe, from published literature.

Published studies on microwave heating uniformity — cold spots, pathogen survival, and why microwave instructions need validation.

Published studies on food metagenomics — shotgun sequencing of food microbiomes for pathogen detection and ecology.

Published guidance and studies on marinade safety — why reusing raw-meat marinade is risky and what the safe practices are.

The 2008 Maple Leaf Foods Listeria outbreak — 57 illnesses, 23 deaths, and Canada's food safety system overhaul.

Published evaluations of MALDI-TOF for identifying foodborne bacteria — fast, accurate IDs and where the technology fits.

Gandhi & Chikindas (2007) reviewed how Listeria monocytogenes survives refrigeration, acid, salt — and defeats food safety barriers.

The 2003 FDA/FSIS Listeria risk assessment — ranking 23 ready-to-eat food categories by listeriosis risk per serving.

Ryser & Marth's Listeria, Listeriosis and Food Safety (2nd ed., 1999) became the standard technical reference on the pathogen and its control.

Buchanan & Phillips (1990) built a response-surface model predicting Listeria monocytogenes growth from temperature, pH, salt, nitrite, and atmosphere.

Farber & Peterkin (1991) reviewed Listeria monocytogenes in foods — the comprehensive synthesis that guided a decade of control efforts.

Tompkin's foundational work on Listeria environmental monitoring — seek-and-destroy sampling that finds harborage sites.

Pouillot et al.'s retail deli meat Listeria risk assessment — modeling cross-contamination and growth at the deli slicer.

Schlech et al. (1983) traced a deadly listeriosis outbreak to coleslaw made from cabbage grown in sheep-manure soil — a landmark food vehicle finding.

Published biofilm research on Listeria monocytogenes persistence on stainless steel — formation, sanitizer resistance, and removal strategies.

Published studies on consumer leftover practices — cooling, storage times, and reheating — and where the risks concentrate.

Published studies on loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) — rapid pathogen detection without thermal cyclers.

Published research tested lactic acid and other organic acid washes on fresh produce — pathogen reductions on leafy greens, tomatoes, and melons.

Published studies on sponge and dishcloth contamination — bacterial loads, pathogen survival, and effective sanitizing methods.

The 2022 Jif peanut butter Salmonella Senftenberg outbreak — 21 illnesses, nationwide recall, and the Lexington plant findings.

FSIS's jerky compliance guideline explains the validated time-temperature-humidity combinations that make dried meat snacks safe.

The 2011 Jensen Farms cantaloupe Listeria outbreak — 147 illnesses, 33 deaths, and the packing-shed failures behind it.

FAO/WHO JEMRA microbiological risk assessments — Salmonella, Listeria, E. sakazakii — the science behind Codex standards.

Linnan et al. (1988) investigated the Jalisco Mexican-style cheese listeriosis outbreak — 142 cases and the raw-milk connection.

The 1993 Jack in the Box E. coli O157:H7 outbreak — 700+ illnesses, 4 deaths, and the regulatory revolution it triggered.

ISO 6579 — the international reference method for detecting Salmonella in food, feed, and environmental samples.

ISO 16140 standard for validating alternative food microbiology methods — the framework behind method equivalence claims.

ISO 11290 parts 1 and 2 — the international reference methods for detecting and enumerating Listeria monocytogenes in food.

WHO's guidance on safe powdered infant formula preparation — the Cronobacter science behind the 70°C water recommendation.

Published literature on indicator organisms — coliforms, E. coli, APC — what they indicate, and what they don't, in food safety programs.

ICMSF's sampling plan framework — cases, stringency, and how attribute sampling plans manage microbiological risk.

Karmali et al. (1983) linked E. coli O157:H7 to hemolytic uremic syndrome — connecting the new pathogen to kidney failure in children.

Published HPP studies show pressure inactivation of Salmonella, Listeria, and E. coli — the validation data behind high-pressure food safety claims.

Published studies tested hot water washes on beef and pork carcasses — how water temperature and pressure reduce surface pathogens.

Published observational studies caught cross-contamination happening in home kitchens — hands, boards, and utensils spreading pathogens.

Redmond & Griffith (2003) reviewed consumer food handling studies in the Journal of Food Protection — what home kitchens get wrong.

Published studies on hepatitis A virus survival in shellfish, produce, and other foods — persistence data and the cooking that kills it.

Fiore (2004) reviewed foodborne hepatitis A transmission in Clinical Infectious Diseases — shellfish, produce, infected handlers, and prevention.

Shapiro & Margolis (1993) mapped worldwide hepatitis A epidemiology — why sanitation shifts disease to adults and raises food risks.

Lammerding & Fazil (2000) detailed hazard identification and exposure assessment for microbial food safety risk assessment.

Published handwashing studies — duration, technique, soap type, and drying — what actually removes pathogens from food workers' hands.

Published observational studies on handwashing compliance — how often people wash, how well, and why compliance collapses without monitoring.

Published studies comparing alcohol hand sanitizers with soap-and-water handwashing against foodborne pathogens — when each works.

Cassin et al. (1998) built the landmark E. coli O157:H7 ground beef risk assessment — the QMRA model that pioneered farm-to-fork analysis.

WHO's FERG estimated 600 million global foodborne illnesses and 420,000 deaths yearly — the worldwide burden and its distribution.

Frank et al. on the 2011 German EHEC O104:H4 outbreak — 3,800+ illnesses from fenugreek sprouts, and an unusual pathogen.

FSIS's E. coli O157:H7 in ground beef risk assessment — modeling slaughter interventions and their public health impact.

FSIS Appendix B (1999) set cooling (stabilization) guidelines for cooked meats — the science limiting Clostridium perfringens growth.

FSIS Appendix A (1999) compliance guidelines established the time-temperature tables for cooked meat safety — the science behind 160°F ground beef.

A USDA study of ~800 meat and poultry samples found Campylobacter recovery five times lower in frozen than fresh product.

The 2013–2014 Foster Farms Salmonella Heidelberg outbreak — 634 illnesses, antibiotic resistance, and the USDA's regulatory dilemma.

Batz et al. (2012) ranked pathogen-food pairs by disease burden — the risk-ranking model for prioritizing food safety interventions.

Bean & Griffin (1990) analyzed 15 years of US foodborne outbreak data — pathogens, vehicles, and trends in the Journal of Food Protection.

Published estimates of foodborne illness sequelae — HUS, Guillain-Barré, reactive arthritis — the chronic burden beyond acute illness.

Scallan et al. (2011) estimated 48 million US foodborne illnesses yearly — how the landmark burden estimates were built.

Newell et al. (2010) asked which foodborne disease challenges of 20 years ago still persist — and which new ones emerged.

Scallan et al. (2011) estimated US foodborne hospitalizations and deaths — which pathogens kill, and how many.

Mead et al. (1999) produced the first comprehensive US foodborne disease burden estimates — 76 million illnesses — the landmark that started it all.

Doyle & Beuchat's Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers (3rd ed., 2007) — the ASM Press reference on pathogens, control, and methods.

USDA researchers found 0.27 kGy of gamma irradiation killed 90% of E. coli O157:H7 in chicken meat — the dose data behind irradiation.

Published studies on food handler food safety knowledge — what workers know, what they get wrong, and the training implications.

Published studies on food donation and recovery safety — temperature control, liability protections, and safe donation practices.

Hoffmann et al. (2012) estimated which foods cause US foodborne illness — the attribution fractions behind commodity rankings.

Published studies on flow cytometry in food microbiology — rapid counting and viability assessment without culturing.

Published validation studies established the 5-log E. coli O157:H7 reduction standard for fermented sausages — fermentation plus drying or heat.

FDA's Food Safety Survey measures consumer knowledge and practices — handwashing, cross-contamination awareness, and high-risk behaviors.

FDA's Bacteriological Analytical Manual — the reference methods for detecting pathogens in foods, and how to use them.

FDA's Bad Bug Book (2nd ed., 2012) profiles major foodborne pathogens — characteristics, illness, foods, and controls in one authoritative handbook.

Published studies on farmers market vendor food safety practices — sampling, temperature control, and handwashing at open-air markets.

Published reviews on expert elicitation for food safety risk assessment — structured methods for quantifying uncertainty with experts.

Published studies on essential oils (oregano, thyme, cinnamon) against foodborne pathogens — efficacy data and the flavor problem.

USDA Economic Research Service cost-of-foodborne-illness estimates — the economic models behind US food safety policy analysis.

Tauxe (2002) surveyed emerging foodborne pathogens — where new threats come from and how to expect the unexpected.

Tauxe (1997) described emerging foodborne diseases — the forces driving new pathogens into the food supply.

Published research on electrolyzed water (acidic and neutral) for produce washing and surface sanitation — efficacy and on-site generation.

Buchanan & Doyle (1997) assessed the foodborne disease significance of E. coli O157:H7 and other enterohemorrhagic E. coli for Food Technology.

Published studies validated egg pasteurization processes against Salmonella Enteritidis — time-temperature science for liquid and shell eggs.

Published studies on consumer egg handling — refrigeration, raw egg dishes, and the behaviors that drive Salmonella Enteritidis risk.

EFSA's Salmonella reduction target opinions — the risk assessments behind Europe's poultry Salmonella targets.

Slutsker et al. (1997) analyzed US surveillance of E. coli O157:H7 diarrhea — clinical features, hospitalization, and risk factors.

Doyle's 1991 review in the International Journal of Food Microbiology laid out E. coli O157:H7's significance in foods — survival, sources, and controls.

Doyle & Schoeni's published survey isolated E. coli O157:H7 from retail fresh meats and poultry — documenting how widespread the hazard was.

Wells et al. (1983) detailed the laboratory investigation linking a rare E. coli serotype to hemorrhagic colitis outbreaks — a methods milestone.

Boyce, Swerdlow & Griffin (1995) reviewed E. coli O157:H7 and HUS in the NEJM — clinical features, risk factors, and prevention.

Riley et al. (1983) first described E. coli O157:H7 hemorrhagic colitis from hamburgers — the study that put this pathogen on the food safety map.

Griffin & Tauxe (1991) reviewed the epidemiology of E. coli O157:H7 and other enterohemorrhagic E. coli in Epidemiologic Reviews.

Buchanan et al.'s dose-response work — the models linking pathogen dose to illness probability that underpin risk assessment.

Wegener et al. (2003) described Denmark's Salmonella control programs — how farm-to-table action cut human salmonellosis.

Published surveys on date-label understanding — "use by" vs. "best before" confusion and how it drives food waste and safety mistakes.

Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for foodborne disease — how WHO's FERG measured the true health burden beyond case counts.

Herwaldt (2000) reviewed Cyclospora cayetanensis and the 1990s produce-linked outbreaks — raspberries, basil, and mesclun lettuce.

Published studies on cutting board cross-contamination — material comparisons, cleaning efficacy, and the raw/RTE separation evidence.

The 2015 Salmonella Poona outbreak linked to Mexican cucumbers — 907 illnesses and the challenges of imported produce safety.

The FAO/WHO risk assessment on Enterobacter sakazakii (Cronobacter) in powdered infant formula — the science behind 70°C water guidance.

Published studies on CRISPR-based subtyping of foodborne pathogens — spacer arrays as epidemiological markers.

Published surveys on pandemic-era food safety attitudes — takeout fears, grocery wiping, and what the evidence actually said.

Scharff (2012) estimated US foodborne illness costs at $77 billion yearly — the economic burden breakdown.

Published studies on cooking poultry from frozen — time adjustments, temperature validation, and why the thermometer still rules.

Published studies on how consumers respond to food recalls — awareness gaps, what gets thrown out, and what doesn't.

Published studies on consumer produce washing — running water vs. soaks, what removes pathogens, and what doesn't.

The 2006–2007 ConAgra Peter Pan peanut butter Salmonella outbreak — 700+ illnesses and the plant sanitation failures behind them.

The 2002 ConAgra beef E. coli O157:H7 outbreak — 46 illnesses and the 19-million-pound ground beef recall.

Emerging published research on cold plasma for food decontamination — how it works, pathogen reductions, and current limitations.

Codex Alimentarius risk analysis principles — how risk assessment, management, and communication structure global food safety.

Published studies on chlorine-based produce washing — pathogen reductions, concentration control, and why wash water can cross-contaminate.

University of Georgia researchers found gaseous chlorine dioxide cut pathogens up to 5.9 logs on fresh-cut produce without quality loss.

Chipotle's 2015 outbreaks — E. coli O26, norovirus, and Salmonella — how fresh-prep practices failed at scale.

Hedberg, MacDonald & Osterholm (1994) traced the changing epidemiology of foodborne disease — new pathogens, new foods, new challenges.

Core genome MLST (cgMLST) — the high-resolution typing scheme behind modern genomic outbreak investigation.

The 2014–2015 caramel apple Listeria outbreak — 35 illnesses, 7 deaths, and how the caramel-apple combination enabled growth.

Thomas et al. estimated Canada's foodborne illness burden — 4 million illnesses yearly and the pathogens responsible.

Allos (2001) updated the clinical picture of Campylobacter jejuni infections — diagnosis, complications, and antibiotic resistance trends.

Altekruse et al. (1997) reviewed Campylobacter jejuni in Emerging Infectious Diseases — poultry, Guillain-Barré syndrome, and prevention.

Doyle & Schoeni (1987) compared Campylobacter isolation methods — the study behind better recovery of this fragile pathogen.

Published studies on buffet risks — temperature holding, serving utensils, and sneeze guards — what the research says.

Sobel (2005) reviewed botulism in Clinical Infectious Diseases — foodborne, infant, and wound types, diagnosis, and antitoxin treatment.

Lindström & Korkeala (2006) reviewed laboratory diagnostics of botulism — the mouse bioassay, toxin detection, and food testing challenges.

The 2015 Blue Bell Listeria outbreak — 10 illnesses, 3 deaths, total recall, and the plant sanitation failures investigators found.

Published reviews on biosensors for foodborne pathogens — optical, electrochemical, and piezoelectric platforms, and their readiness.

The 1998–1999 Bil Mar hot dog Listeria outbreak — 101 illnesses, 21 deaths, and the Sara Lee plant behind it.

FDA BAM Chapter 9 — the reference methods for detecting Vibrio cholerae, parahaemolyticus, and vulnificus in seafood.

Published studies on bacteriophage biocontrol of Listeria monocytogenes on ready-to-eat foods — efficacy data and regulatory status.

Granum & Lund (1997) reviewed Bacillus cereus food poisoning toxins — the diarrheal and emetic types and why fried rice is the classic vehicle.

Kirk et al. (2014) estimated Australia's foodborne disease burden — 4.1 million illnesses yearly and the leading causes.

Published evaluations of ATP bioluminescence for hygiene monitoring — what it measures, where it works, and its limits.

AOAC Research Institute's Performance Tested Methods program — how rapid pathogen methods earn independent validation status.

Published studies tested acidified sodium chlorite (ASC) on produce and poultry — pathogen reductions and how it compares to chlorine.

026 Cyclospora Outbreak Linked to Leafy Greens: Scientific Analysis, FDA Investigation, and Food Safety Lessons2026 Cyclospora Outbreak Linked to Leafy Greens | GIFSQ Description: A scientific review of the 2026 Cyclospora outbreak linked to iceberg lettuce, covering outbreak epidemiology, FDA/CDC investigation findings, contamination pathways, HACCP, and preventive controls for fresh produce. Executive Summary In the […]

Environmental monitoring of drains, floors, and food contact surfaces in local ready-to-eat factories to trace persistence and multidrug resistance patterns.

A systematic regulatory comparison of BRCGS Issue 9 requirements against national Nepalese food hygiene licensing criteria for manufacturing compliance.

Evaluating carbon dioxide and oxygen gas composition drift, respiratory rates, and microbial shelf-life extensions under cold-chain fluctuation models.

Quantitative screening of raw corn and wheat flour batches using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to establish critical limit compliance margins.

A comprehensive scientific study analyzing temperature-time boundaries, water activity (Aw) correlations, and lethality curves (D-value and z-value) for industrial steam pasteurization.