GIFSQ Food Safety Glossary

Chemical name for the plant growth regulator ethephon.

Catalyse the final step in ethylene biosynthesis in higher plants, converting 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) to ethylene, and are involved in ripening of fruits.

EC 4.4.1.14. Catalyse the rate-limiting step in ethylene biosynthesis in higher plants which leads to ripening of fruits.

Plant growth regulator important in ripening of fruits. Often abbreviated to ACC.

Volatile unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbon which acts as an inhibitor of ethylene activity by binding to ethylene receptors. Inhibits postharvest ripening and softening in fruits and vegetables, thus extending shelf life.

Aliphatic alcohol used primarily in emulsifiers. Other uses in foods include in anticaking agents, antioxidants, flavourings and humectants. Used in freezing media and solvents for food processing. Synonym for propylene glycol.

EC 2.4.1.18. Enzymes which transfer a segment of a 1,4-α-D-glucan chain to a primary hydroxyl group in a similar glucan chain. These enzymes convert amyloses into amylopectins. The recommended name requires a qualification depending on the product, glycogen or amylopectin, e.g. glycogen branching enzyme, amylopectin branching enzyme (often referred to as Q-enzyme).

Globulins with a sedimentation coefficient of 11S which constitute one of the main groups of characteristic storage proteins in non-cereal grains, such as beans, peas and peanuts.

Chemical name for the plant growth regulator naphthaleneacetic acid.

Alternative term for (RS)-secbutylamine, a fungicide used for fumigation of seed and ware potatoes for control of skin spot and gangrene. Also used as a fungicidal dip or spray on harvested fruit (e.g. control of blue and green moulds on citrus fruits, and stem rot of oranges).

Methylketone which is one of the important flavour compounds in foods, especially cheese and other dairy products.

Compound of the terpenoids group, formed by soil microorganisms, which can cause mouldy, musty taints in water and freshwater fish.

Alternative term for 2,3-butylene glycol.

Synonym for the flavour compound diacetyl. Yellow, flammable liquid with a strong aroma and buttery flavour derived from fermentation of glucose. Soluble in water and alcohol. Used as an aroma carrier in foods and beverages.

Precursor of the flavour compound diacetyl (2,3-butanedione), formed by microbial fermentation in various foods and beverages, especially wines. Formation of 2,3-butanediol is a useful parameter for identification and differentiation of wine yeasts.

Alternative term for dichlorophenoxyacetic acid.

Selective systemic herbicide used for post-emergence control of annual and perennial broad-leaved weeds in cereal crops, orchards, some vegetable crops and sugar cane. Classified by WHO as moderately toxic (WHO II). Also known as 2,4-D.

Herbicide used to control weeds among a range of fruits, vegetables and cereals. Also known as 2,4,5- trichlorophenoxyacetic acid.

Chemical name for the flavour compound furaneol.

Chemical name for the flavour compound acetoin.

Chemical name for isovaleraldehyde. May be one of the flavour compounds or cause taints in various foods, beverages and water.

One of the antinutrients of the amino acids group. It occurs in faba beans (Vicia faba) and in some underutilized legumes (including Mucuna pruriens var. utilis and Cas-sia hirsuta). Abbreviated to L-DOPA.

Phenolic inhibitor of polyphenol oxidases (catechol oxidases), used to control browning of fruits, and melanosis in shrimps.

EC 2.4.1.25. Enzymes which transfer a segment of a 1,4-α-D-glucan to a new position in an acceptor, which may be glucose or another 1,4-α-D-glucan. Involved in starch metabolism in plants and can catalyse the synthesis of cycloamylose. Together with maltogenic amylases, these enzymes may also be useful for the synthesis of isomaltooligosaccharides, useful as low calorie sweeteners and in probiotic foods as bifidogenic agents. Also known as disproportionating enzymes, dextrin glycosyltransferases and D-enzymes.

Synonym for hydroxymethylfurfural. Member of the heterocyclic organic compounds composed of a furan ring with aldehyde and hydroxymethyl substituents. Found as a natural component in honeys and as a thermal breakdown product of sugars in heat-treated products such as UHT milk and pasteurized fruit juices. Often determined chemically as a marker of nonenzymic browning.

Chemical name for serotonin. A biogenic amine which may occur in foods. In the body, functions as a neurotransmitter, and is toxic at excessive concentrations.

Plant growth regulator used to control processes such as ripening and senescence, and composition of fruits, vegetables and cereals.

Definition

Precursor of the flavour compound diacetyl.

Humulones. The main bitter compounds of hops resins, used to impart a bitter taste to beer. Converted to the more soluble and more bitter iso-α- acids during boiling of worts.

Index of the amino acid N content of foods, beverages or their raw materials and intermediate materials, e.g. in brewing.

Components of foods that inhibit α-amylases, enzymes present in saliva and pancreatic secretions which are involved in digestion of dietary starch. Presence of α-amylase inhibitors in starch-rich foods can reduce the rate of starch digestion and release of glucose into the bloodstream. Types of α-amylase inhibitor include proteins of higher plants (such as cereals and legumes), and polypeptides and nitrogen-containing carbohydrates produced by Streptomyces spp.

EC 3.2.1.1. Catalyse endohydrolysis of 1,4-α-D-glucosidic linkages in polysaccharides containing three or more 1,4-α-linked D-glucose units. Act on starch, glycogen, and related polysaccharides and oligosaccharides in a random manner; reducing groups are liberated in the α configuration. Used to convert starch to dextrins in the production of corn syrups, as a flour supplement to aid yeasts growth and gas production in dough making, and for solubilization of brewing adjuncts.

One of the carotenes with antioxidant and provitamin A activities found in green and yellow plant foods in association with chlorophylls. Has approximately half the vitamin A activity of β- carotene. Rich dietary sources include carrots, green beans, Swiss chard and tomatoes. As with other carotenoids, intake of α-carotene is maximized if foods are eaten raw or lightly cooked.

EC 3.2.1.41. Hydrolyse 1,6-α-D-glucosidic linkages in pullulan, amylopectins and glycogen, and in the α- and β- amylase limit dextrans of amylopectins and glycogen. Also known as limit dextrinases, debranching enzymes, pullulanases and 6-glucanohydrolases.

EC 3.2.1.22. Hydrolyse terminal, non-reducing α-D-galactose residues in α-D-galactosides, including galactose oligosaccharides, galactomannans and galactolipids. Can also hydrolyse α-D-fucosides. Useful for hydrolysis of oligosaccharides in soymilk, making it more suitable for human consumption. Also known as melibiases.

EC 3.2.1.20. Enzymes which hydrolyse terminal, non-reducing 1,4-linked α-D-glucose residues of oligosaccharides and α-D-glucosides. Polysaccharides are hydrolysed only slowly. These enzymes are specific with respect to the glucose residues of glucosides but less specific with respect to the aglycones. Can be used to hydrolyse maltose and maltose derivatives, sucrose, and aryl- and alkyl-α-D-glucosides. Also known as maltases and glucoinvertases.

EC 3.2.1.139. Enzymes which hydrolyse α-1,2-glycosidic bonds of the 4-O-methyl-D-glucuronic acid side chain of xylan. Act as part of an array of xylan degrading enzymes produced by a range of microorganisms. Such enzymes are useful in food processing procedures involving degradation of plant cell walls, e.g. extraction of juices and essential oils, or clarification of wines, and in production of modified xylans for use as bulking agents.

Cis,cis-lupanine. Alkaloid occurring in lupin seeds (Lupinus spp.).

EC 3.2.1.40. Hydrolyse terminal, non-reducing α-L-rhamnose residues in α-L-rhamnosides. Can be used to reduce the bitterness of citrus juices, depolymerize gellan gums and release flavour compounds in wines, thus increasing their aroma.

One of the major whey proteins, accounting for approximately 20% of total whey proteins in cow milk. Rich in tryptophan and cystine. Found in genetic variants A, B and C that differ in amino acids composition and have a bearing on the properties and yield of milk.

EC 3.2.1.24. Hydrolyse terminal, non-reducing α-D-mannose residues in α-D-mannosides. Involved in the ripening of fruits and can be used for synthesis of novel cyclodextrins.

EC 3.2.1.55. Hydrolyse terminal, non-reducing α-L-arabinofuranoside residues in α-L-arabinosides. Release arabinose from α-Larabinofuranosides, α-L-arabinans containing (1,3)- and/or (1,5)-linkages, arabinoxylans and arabinogalactans. Useful in the winemaking industry where they can be used to release monoterpenols in grape juices, and for improving the pore structure and distribution in bread. Also known as arabinosidases.

The major contributor to vitamin E activity in foods. Rich sources of this fat-soluble vitamin include vegetable oils, margarines, wheat germ, nuts, seeds, sea foods, beef, eggs, fruits and vegetables. α-Tocopherol is a powerful antioxidant that protects polyunsaturated fats and vitamin A from oxidation in the gastrointestinal tract. α-Tocopherol also prolongs the life of red blood cells and protects lung tissue from the adverse effects of pollution. α-Tocopherol is included among GRAS substances and is one of the antioxidants used in the food industry to retard rancidity in foods containing polyunsaturated fats.

Alternative term for vitamin E acetate.

Alternative term for α- tocopherol acetate/vitamin E acetate.

EC 3.2.1.28. Hydrolyse the disaccharide trehalose into 2 units of its monomer, D-glucose. encephalopathies Can be used for analytical determination of trehalose concentrations.

Accounting for approximately 50% of total casein in cow milk. Subdivided into fractions αs1-casein and αs2- casein, each of which exists in several genetic variants that differ in amino acids composition. Contains relatively high proportions of lysine and tryptophan.

A subfraction of αs-casein. Found in several genetic variants in cow milk. These variants differ in amino acids composition and have a bearing on the properties and yield of milk.

A subfraction of αs-casein. Found in several genetic variants in cow milk. These variants differ in amino acids composition and have a bearing on the properties and yield of milk.

Lupulones. Low-solubility resin constituents in hops which have little bittering capacity in beer.

Group of non-hormonal growth promoters. Used to enhance growth rates and improve feed efficiency and lean meat content of animals; also used in veterinary medicine as bronchodilatory and tocolytic agents. In general, rapidly excreted from the body; non-authorized use during withdrawal period has resulted in cases of human food poisoning. Banned for use as growth-promoting agents in farm animals in many countries, including European Union member states and the USA. Commonly used examples are cimaterol, clenbuterol, rimiterol and terbutaline.

EC 3.2.1.2. Hydrolyse 1,4-α-D-glucosidic linkages in polysaccharides, removing successive maltose units from the non-reducing ends of the chains. Act on starch, glycogen, and related polysaccharides and oligosaccharides, producing β- maltose by an inversion reaction. Used for production of high maltose syrups.

One of the carotenoids with antioxidant and provitamin A activities found in yellow and green plant foods in association with chlorophylls. Rich dietary sources include carrots, sweet potatoes, green leafy vegetables and yellow fruits. In general, plant foods with more intense green or yellow colour have greater concentrations of β-carotene.

One of the major casein fractions in milk, accounting for approximately 35% of total casein in cow milk.

Pharmacologically active fragments of β-casein which exhibit biological effects in mammals.

One of the main soy proteins, composed of three subunits (α, α′ and β). A 7S globulin which, along with glycinin, makes up approximately 70% of the storage proteins in soybeans.

EC 3.2.1.26. Hydrolyse terminal non-reducing β-D-fructofuranoside residues in β-D-fructofuranosides. Substrates include sucrose, which is hydrolysed to a mixture of glucose and fructose. The resultant monosaccharide mixture is called invert sugar. Also known as invertases and saccharases, these enzymes can also be used in the production of marzipan, soft chocolate fillings and artificial honeys.

EC 3.2.1.23. Hydrolyse terminal non-reducing β-D-galactose residues in β-D-galactosides. Used for production of low lactose dairy products (suitable for individuals who suffer from lactose intolerance) where they hydrolyse lactose to glucose and galactose. Lactose hydrolysates are significantly more soluble than lactose and can be used as syrups for the manufacture of baked goods, in the production of ice cream and desserts, and in dressings and lemonade. These enzymes are also useful for utilization of whey-containing wastes.

Alternative term for endo-1,3(4)-β- glucanases.

Soluble but undigested polysaccharide complexes composed of D-glucose in either straight or branched chains with glycosidic linkages. Present in most cereal grains but occur in larger amounts in barley and oats.

EC 3.2.1.21. Enzymes which hydrolyse terminal non-reducing β-D-glucose residues with the release of β-D-glucose. Substrates include cellobiose, cellooligosaccharides and aryl-β-glucosides. These enzymes have a number of uses in the food industry, including debittering of table olives, increasing the aroma of wines, enrichment of genistein in soy protein concentrates and release of phenols from phenolic glycosides in plant tissues.

EC 3.2.1.31. Enzymes which can be used to hydrolyse glycyrrhizin β-glucuronide, modifying its sweetness. The enzymes present in intestinal bacteria are thought to be responsible for production of toxic aglycones and carcinogens, a process which may be induced by dietary carbohydrates. Determination of β-glucuronidase activity may, therefore, be useful for evaluating dietary-mediated colon cancer risk.

Large group of antibiotics comprising naturally occurring and semisynthetic penicillins; the most widely used antimicrobial drugs in veterinary practice. Commonly classified into 4 groups according to antimicrobial properties: aminopenicillins; cephalosporins; carbapenems; and monobactams.

EC 3.5.2.6. Hydrolases that hydrolyse β-lactam antibiotics. Those that act on penicillins are sometimes known as penicillinases.

One of the major whey proteins, accounting for approximately 50% of total whey proteins in cow milk. Small globular protein rich in methionine. Exists as a dimer at neutral pH, with one free thiol group and two disulfide bridges. Several genetic variants that affect milk properties and yield have been identified in cow milk, but variants A and B are most common. Often used as a surfactant in food dispersions such as emulsions to stabilize polyphasic systems.

EC 3.2.1.25. Hydrolyse terminal, non-reducing β-D-mannose residues in β-D-mannosides. Can be used for synthesis of alkyl β-mannosides, which are useful as surfactants, and also for synthesis of mannooligosaccharides. Also known as mannases and mannanases.

Alternative term for xylan 1,4-β- xylosidases.

One of the casein fractions in milk, originating from β-casein.

Flavour compound found in various foods, including fruits and alcoholic beverages. Microbially synthesized γ-decalactone is used in food flavourings.

Globulins occurring in animal tissues and products derived from them; includes immunoglobulins.

EC 3.4.19.9. Carboxypeptidases that hydrolyse γ-glutamyl bonds. Used in analysis of folates in foods and beverages, and also known as conjugases and folate conjugases.

EC 2.3.2.2. Also known as glutamyl transpeptidases, these enzymes catalyse the hydrolysis and transpeptidation of γ-glutamyl compounds, such as glutathione. Activity of these enzymes in onions has been linked to the formation of a variety of organic sulfur compounds active as defence molecules and as flavour compounds. The enzymes have also been used as markers for the pasteurization of milk.

One of the casein fractions in milk, representing approximately 10% of total casein in cow milk. Contains relatively high proportions of isoleucine and threonine. Located on the surface of casein micelles. Found in several genetic variants in cow milk. These variants differ in amino acids composition and have a bearing on the properties and yield of milk.

Proteins present in bacteria which bind to DNA-directed RNA polymerases, promoting initiation of transcription at promoters of a specific class. Involved in response of the cell to heat shock or other types of stress.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids having double bonds in the ω-3 position; found in oily fish. May have beneficial effects on health, especially resistance to cardiovascular diseases.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids having double bonds in the ω-6 position. Found in vegetable oils. May have beneficial effects for health, especially reducing the risks for cancer, stroke and coronary heart diseases. Include arachidonic acid, linoleic acid and γ-linolenic acid.

Abbreviation ante cibos

Abbreviation for atomic absorption spectroscopy.

Marine gastropod molluscs belonging to the family Haliotidae, which contains around 70 species; widely distributed, but found mainly in the Western Pacific (Japan and Australia), and also off California and Southern Africa. Only the adductor muscle is edible, having a mild sweet flavour; this muscle is normally tenderized to soften the naturally tough, rubbery texture. Marketed in a variety of forms, including powdered, brined and canned products.

Alternative term for the pesticide temephos.

Types of slaughterhouses where animals are slaughtered for meat and offal. Abattoirs usually include lairage (a holding area for live animals), a slaughtering line and cold stores. Facilities for processing of by-products (blood, intestines, skins, fat, bristle, unusable waste products), and treatment of waste water and air are often included.

A space inside the body that contains the stomach, intestines, liver and other vital organs

The space in the body below the chest

Abbreviation Association of Bakery Ingredients Manufacturers

French semi-hard mountain cheese made from milk of cows of the breeds Abondance, Montbeliard and Tarine. Characterized by a strong aroma and a complex flavour. The crust and a grey layer beneath are removed before consumption.

Alternative term for abrey.

Sudanese non-alcoholic fermented beverages made from sorghum.

Abstinence from eating (technical)

Plant growth regulator, important in ripening of fruits and cereals.

Genus of fungi of the class Zygomycetes. Occur as saprotrophs on decaying vegetable matter, grains, soil or dung, and meat, or as parasites or pathogens of plants or animals. Some species may be used in the production of chitosan (e.g. Absidia coerulea, A. glauca and A. atrospora).

Liqueur flavoured with aniseed and wormwood. Widely believed to be neurotoxic as a result of thujone derived from wormwood; sale is prohibited in many countries for this reason.

Alcohol that contains no water

Materials or substances that are capable of absorption. Uses of absorbents include incorporation within food packaging (to absorb oxygen as a preservation technique, to control humidity, and to manage aroma and flavour problems in packaged foods) and for purification of foods and beverages, such as drinking water and liquid foods.

Process involving molecules of one substance being taken directly into another substance. Absorption may be either a physical or a chemical process, physical absorption involving such factors as solubility and vapour-pressure relationships and chemical absorption involving chemical reactions between the absorbed substance and the absorbing medium. Absorption includes such processes as the passage of nutrients and other substances from the gastrointestinal tract into the blood and lymph, and also the uptake of water, fats and other substances into foods.

A method of cooking rice in which it is removed from the heat after a while and allowed to soak up any remaining water (NOTE: Rice cooked in this way is also known as steamed rice.)

Tending not to eat or drink very much

Abbreviation alcohol by volume

A berry with very high concentrations of essential fatty acids and anthocyanins, considered a superfood

A drug used for treating type 2 diabetes

Pesticides used to control mites and ticks (family Acaridae), many of which are responsible for animal diseases and spoilage of stored crops. Commonly used examples are amitraz, bromopropylate, coumaphos and fluvalinate. Residues in foods may represent a health hazard to consumers.

Abbreviation for the plant growth regulator, 1- aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid.

The degree to which the quality of a food is regarded as satisfactory.

A safety level for substances used as food additives. The acceptable daily intake (ADI) is usually calculated as 1/100th of the maximum dose of the substance that causes no adverse effects in humans.

The willingness to regard the quality of a food as satisfactory.

Systemic insecticide used to control a wide range of chewing and sucking insects (e.g. aphids, sawflies and leafhoppers) in fruits and vegetables. Classified by WHO as slightly toxic (WHO III).

Alternative term for Barbados cherries.

2 N-Acetyllactosamine synthases Acetaldehyde Aldehyde, synonym ethanal. One of the common flavour compounds in many foods and beverages. May cause taints in some foods. Toxic at excessive concentrations.

Group of diethers which occur as natural flavour compounds in foods such as fruits and herbs, and alcoholic beverages. May be used in flavourings.

Anionic, xanthan-like exopolysaccharides formed by Acetobacter xylinum. Of potential use in thickeners or gelling agents.

Salts or esters of acetic acid. Flavour compounds in many foods and beverages. May be used as preservatives.

Member of the short chain fatty acids group, which occurs in a range of foods and beverages. May be one of the flavour compounds, or cause taints, depending on food or beverage type and the concentration at which it is present. Acetic acid is the main constituent of vinegar. It may be used for preservation or flavouring of foods.

Any Gram negative, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria, e.g. Acetobacter species and Gluconobacter species, capable of oxidizing ethanol to acetic acid. Occur on the surface of fruits, vegetables and flowers, and in soil. Used industrially in the manufacture of vinegar. May cause spoilage of beer and wines.

The process by which certain microorganisms (e.g. Acetobacter and Acetomonas spp., and Gluconobacter oxydans) metabolize an alcoholic substrate to form acetic acid, the main constituent of vinegar. Alcoholic substrates can be obtained from a variety of sources, such as fruits, vegetables and grain.

Genus of Gram negative, strictly aerobic, rod-shaped acetic acid bacteria of the family Acetobacteraceae, that are capable of oxidizing ethanol to acetic acid. Occur on fruits and flowers. May be responsible for spoilage of beer and wines. Acetobacter aceti, A. aceti subsp. xylinum, A. acetigenum and A. schuezenbachii are used in commercial production of vinegar.

Flavour compound found commonly in dairy products and wines. Synonyms include 3- hydroxy-2-butanone and acetylmethylcarbinol.

EC 4.1.1.5. These enzymes can be used to reduce the maturation time in winemaking by converting acetolactate to acetoin, and to analyse diacetyl and acetoin concentrations in beer during brewing. Expression of these enzymes in brewers yeasts has also been used to reduce the levels of diacetyl, thus reducing the time required for lagering.

Former name for the genus Gluconobacter.

Smallest of the ketones, synonym propanone. Widely used as a solvent in food analyses, particularly for lipids and related compounds. Produced along with butanol and ethanol as a microbial fermentation product from unconventional feedstocks including food processing wastes.

Aromatic ketone that is among the flavour compounds in foods such as herbs, honeys and katsuobushi.

Ketone, synonym pentanedione, which occurs in the flavour compounds of foods and beverages, including beer, coffee and fermented dairy products.

Introduction of acetyl groups into a compound or substance. Usually achieved by reaction with acetic anhydride, acetic acid or an acetate such as vinyl acetate. Sometimes used to protect hydroxyl groups during organic syntheses. Such modification is also used to alter the physicochemical properties, functional properties or nutritional quality of substances such as starch, proteins and carbohydrates.

EC 3.1.1.7. Convert acetylcholine to choline and acetates. Act on a variety of acetic esters and also possess transacetylase activity. A number of inhibitors of these enzymes are used as pesticides. As such, the enzymes can be used to detect the presence of residues of these inhibitors in foods and beverages.

Hydrocarbon which acts as a plant growth regulator and can be used to control ripening of fruits.

Comprise β-N-acetylglucosaminidases (EC 3.2.1.50), which hydrolyse terminal non-reducing N-acetyl-D-glucosamine residues in N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminides, and mannosyl-glycoprotein endo-β-N-acetylglucosaminidases (EC 3.2.1.96), which catalyse endo-hydrolysis of the N,N'-diacetylchitobiosyl unit in high-mannose glycopeptides and glycoproteins containing the [Man(GlcNAc)2]Asn structure; one N-acetyl-D-glucosamine residue remains attached to the protein, while the rest of the oligosaccharide is released intact.

Flavour compound found commonly in dairy products and wines. Synonym of acetoin.

Species of cereal crop, Digitaria exilis, indigenous to West and North Africa and grown for its grain.

Obsolete genus of Gram negative, rod-shaped bacteria of the family Achromobactereaceae, in which several parasitic and pathogenic species were formerly grouped. Occur in soil, and fresh and salt water. Some representatives have now been designated to the genera Acinetobacter and Alcaligenes.

Casein produced by acid precipitation from milk at its isoelectric point, pH 4.7. Acidification can be achieved by direct addition of an acid or through the action of lactic acid bacteria.

A cheese produced by microbial ripening of quarg, ripening proceeding from the outside of the cheese. Cultures used include bacteria, fungi and yeasts, the selection depending on the type of cheese being made.

EC 3.1.3.2. Enzymes with wide specificity which catalyse hydrolysis of orthophosphoric monoesters into an alcohol and orthophosphate. Also catalyse transphosphorylation. Important for flavour development, e.g. in cheese and also used as a marker of thermal processing in meat.

Rain which has low pH caused by formation of acids due to interaction of industrial gas emissions with water. Studies with simulated acid rain have shown adverse effects on yield and quality of exposed crops, especially fruits such as apples, pears and peaches. Fruit marketability and composition were affected.

The level of free fatty acids present in lipids. The acid value, also known as the acid number, is determined by measuring the amount of KOH in milligrammes that neutralizes 1 g of the lipid. Acid values of fresh edible fats tend to be low and increase with storage as the glycerides present in the lipids break down to generate free fatty acids.

Whey produced by acid coagulation of milk during cheesemaking.

Process by which the pH of a substance is decreased, making it more acidic.

The degree to which a substance or solution is acidic, being dependent upon the concentration of hydrogen ions. Level of acidity is expressed using pH.

Bacteriocins produced by Lactobacillus acidophilus.

Fermented milk prepared by fermentation of milk with a mixture of lactic acid bacteria, acidophilus, and kefir including Lactobacillus grains.

Fermented milk produced by fermentation of milk with Lactobacillus acidophilus. Consumption of acidophilus milk has beneficial effects on the intestine.

Cultured milk products made using curd resulting from milk acidification with Lactobacillus acidophilus.

Chemical compounds which release hydrogen ions when dissolved in water, or whose H can be replaced by metal atoms or basic radicals, or which react with bases to form salts and water. Include both organic acids and inorganic acids. Inorganic acids may be used in food processing or cleaning of equipment. Organic acids of many types are constituents of a wide range of foods, both as natural constituents and as processing aids. Important types of organic acids in foods include fatty acids, amino acids and carboxylic acids.

Ability of organisms to withstand acidic conditions. Important for survival of microorganisms in acid environments such as the gastrointestinal tract and during fermentation of foods.

Organic acids used in foods to control pH and fulfil a variety of functions. Applications include preservation of meat products, flavour enhancement, prevention of discoloration in sliced fruits, and prevention of development of rancidity in oils and fats. Commonly used acidulants in the food industry include citric acid, acetic acid, propionic acid and lactic acid.

Genus of Gram negative, aerobic, rod-shaped psychrotrophic bacteria of the family Neisseriaceae. Occur in soil, water and raw milk, and on the surfaces of chilled meat and fish. Some species may be used in production of lipases (e.g. Acinetobacter radioresistens and A. calcoaceticus).

Common name for Blighia sapida, also known as akee. This fruit was introduced to the West Indies from West Africa and is particularly popular in Jamaica. Fruits are pear shaped and can be consumed raw, cooked, or in canned or frozen forms. Unripe ackee contains hypoglycine A, a toxic amino acid, which can cause the potentially fatal Jamaican vomiting sickness. Levels of hypoglycine A rapidly diminish at maturity, but damaged or fallen fruit should not be consumed.

One of the organic acids found in sugar cane. Used in flavourings and acidulants for the food industry and also in the manufacture of emulsifying agents, plastics and detergents.

Nuts obtained from the oak tree (Quercus spp.). Widely available, and used as a source of food by some populations, particularly in times of need. Can be pounded into meal for use in baked goods or used as coffee substitutes. Acorns are high in starch and are used in Korea to produce an edible starch gel known as mook. They also represent a source of edible oils.

Study of the physical properties of sound; also refers to techniques based on transmission, generation or reception of sound. Acoustic devices have been used to detect insects infestation of grain. Acoustics has also been used in examining the structure of materials, including foods such as pasta, and as the basis of a non-destructive method to determine the firmness of fruits, especially peaches.

Epidemic disease commonly abbreviated to AIDS.

Genus of fungi of the class Plectomycetes. May be used in production of cellulases (e.g. Acremonium cellulolyticus and A. alcalophilum).

Genus of palms, including Acrocomia mexicana, which has edible fruits, and is used as a source of palm oils (oil of coyal) and in manufacture of palm wines. Also includes A. sclerocarpa, which has edible fruits that are used as the source of coconut-like oils.

Aldehyde, synonym propenal. Member of the aroma compounds group, which may cause off odour or off flavour in overheated fats or spirits.

Monomer used in manufacture of a range of plastics used in packaging materials or other food contact applications. Acrylonitrile residues may migrate out of plastics items and cause contamination of foods.

EC 3.4.22.14. Cysteine proteinases found in kiwifruit (Chinese gooseberries) with specificity similar to that of papain. Also known as actinidins.

Alternative term for actinidains.

Genus of fungi of the class Zygomycetes. Occur as saprotrophs on decaying vegetable matter, soil or dung, or as parasites or pathogens of plants or animals. Actinomucor elegans and A. taiwanensis are used in production of East Asian speciality foods, such as sufu and meitauza.

Genus of Gram positive, facultatively anaerobic bacteria of the family Actinomycetaceae. Occur as the normal flora of the mouth and throat or as pathogens in humans and cattle. Actinomyces pyogenes is the cause of summer mastitis in cattle, and can therefore contaminate their milk.

Order of Gram positive, aerobic bacteria. Occur in soil, composts and aquatic habitats. Most species are free-living and saprophytic, but some form symbiotic associations and others are pathogenic to man, other animals, and plants.

Gram positive, aerobic bacteria of the order Actinomycetales. Occur in soil and water. Some are plant or animal pathogens. May be used in the production of enzymes (e.g. lipases and cellulolytic enzymes).

Genus of Gram positive, aerobic bacteria of the family Actinoplanaceae. Occur in soil, plant litter and aquatic habitats. Actinoplanes missouriensis may be used in production of enzymes (e.g. glucose isomerases and xylose isomerases).

Alternative term for the antibiotic spectinomycin.

A family of multifunctional intracellular proteins, best known as a myofibrillar component of striated muscle fibres. They constitute about 13% of muscle proteins and are the major components of the I-band or thin filament of the sarcomere. Actins contain high levels of the amino acid proline. Imino-groups within proline contribute to the folding of actin molecules and result in formation of G-actin (globular actin). G-actin, a spherical molecule approximately 5.5 nm in diameter, constitutes the monomeric form of actin. In the presence of potassium chloride and ATP, G-actin polymerizes into long fibres of F-actin. Most vertebrate genomes contain numerous actin genes with high sequence homology in protein coding regions, but considerable variability in intron size and number. This genetic diversity can be utilized for livestock speciation and meat authenticity tests. Determination of actin content has been proposed as a means of calculating the meat content of meat products.

Alternative term for activated carbon.

Amorphous forms of elemental carbon, particularly charcoal, which have been treated, e.g. by acid or heat, to improve their powers of absorption. Used for a variety of food and industrial applications, including drinking water purification, de-coloration of sugar solutions and sorption of residues of pesticides from wines.

Minimum energy required for a chemical reaction to proceed; the difference in energy between that of the reactants and that at the transition state of the reaction. Activation energy determines the way in which the rate of a reaction varies with temperature.

Packaging materials which have functions additional to their basic barrier action. Used for packaging a wide range of foods and beverages. Types of active packaging include: packs which adsorb ethylene to control ripening of fruits; packs which regulate moisture levels; packs which contain oxygen scavengers; packs which contain CO2 scavengers or generators; packs which release or absorb flavours or aromas; antimicrobial packaging (e.g. packs which release ethanol to control the growth of fungi); packs with special microwave heating properties; and packaging with monitoring systems (time/temp. exposure indicators or temp. control).

Locations on the surface of catalysts at which reactions occur. On enzymes, substrates are bound at the active sites, the shape of the site being important for strong and specific binding to occur.

A complex of the two major muscle proteins, actins and myosin. Actomyosin is formed during muscle contraction with simultaneous hydrolysis of ATP to ADP. Within myofibrils during contraction, each myosin head region on a thick myofilament attaches to a G-actin molecule within a thin myofilament. This interaction leads to formation of crossbridges between actin and myosin and to formation of the actomyosin complex. Formation of actomyosin results in rigidity and lack of extensibility in muscles. In the presence of ATP, as in living animals, the actomyosin complex dissociates rapidly; however, post mortem, actomyosin is the dominant form of myofibrillar protein and it plays a major role in the development of rigor mortis. During post mortem storage, tenderness of meat is affected by modification of the actin-myosin interaction. Thermal denaturation of actomyosin occurs at temperatures between 30 and 50°C.

Alternative term for amidases.

Alternative term for amidases and aminoacylases.

Introduction of acyl groups into a compound or substance. Usually achieved by reaction with an acyl halide or carboxylic acid anhydride. Such modification is used to alter the physicochemical properties, functional properties or nutritional quality of substances such as starch, proteins and sugars.

Systematic name for fatty acid esters of glycerol, such as monoacylglycerols, diacylglycerols and triacylglycerols. Major components of natural fats and oils (particularly as triacylglycerols); also used as emulsifiers. Synonym for glycerides.

Ingredients added in low quantities to foods during processing for one or more specific purposes. These include prevention of chemical and microbial spoilage, enhancement of flavour or colour, improvement of nutritional values or as an aid to processing. The most common types of additives include preservatives, colorants, sweeteners, flavourings, emulsifiers, thickeners and stabilizers.

Purine, synonym 6-aminopurine. Component base of nucleic acids, nucleosides and nucleotides.

Nucleoside of adenine and ribose, synonym adenine riboside. Constituent of nucleotides and nucleic acids.

Phosphorylated adenoside derivative, and breakdown product of the nucleotide adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Level may be used as an indicator of freshness in foods such as meat and fish. Usually abbreviated to ADP.

Nucleotide formed by breakdown of nucleic acids, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) or adenosine diphosphate (ADP). Level may be used as an indicator of freshness in foods such as meat and fish. Commonly abbreviated to AMP.

Nucleotide which is important in energy metabolism. Ratios of adenosine tri-phosphate to its decomposition products may be used as indicators of freshness in foods such as meat and fish. Levels may also be used as an indicator of microbial counts in foods. Commonly abbreviated to ATP.

Alternative term for ATPases.

Genus of double stranded DNA-containing viruses of the family Adenoviridae which can infect mammals and birds. Infection, which can occur via water or shellfish, may be asymptomatic or result in disease.

Binding of microorganisms specifically or non-specifically to a substratum or to other cells. May be mediated by specialized microbial components or structures (e.g. adhesins and prostheca). Adherence to a particular host tissue is a preliminary stage in pathogenesis for many pathogens.

Bacterial cell surface appendages or extracellular macromolecular components that facilitate adherence of a cell to a surface or to other cells. Important in the colonization of mucous membranes, e.g. the intestinal mucous membranes by enteropathogenic Escherichia coli. Also facilitate adherence of bacteria to surfaces such as glass, ceramics and synthetics.

Attachment and sticking together of one or more substance. Adhesives may be used to promote adhesion, e.g. in packaging materials. Sometimes used to refer to adherence of microorganisms to a substratum or other cells. This may be mediated by specialized microbial components or structures such as adhesins or prostheca. This type of adhesion is important for the action of the microorganism, e.g. a preliminary step in pathogenesis of pathogens.

Substances used to stick items together. Most adhesives form a bond by filling in the minute pits and fissures normally present even in very smooth surfaces. Effectiveness of an adhesive depends on several factors, including resistance to slippage and shrinkage, malleability, cohesive strength, and surface tension, which determines how far the adhesive penetrates the tiny depressions in the bonding surfaces.

α-Acids fraction of the bitter compounds of hops.

Abbreviation for acceptable daily intake.

Synonym for hexanedioic acid. Used in acidulants, antimicrobial preservatives or starch-modifying agents. Adipic acid esters are used as plasticizers in plastics.

Connective tissues which function as an energy reserve and insulation layer composed of cells (adipocytes) which synthesize and store large lipid globules.

Non-starter cultures used in addition to starters, mainly in cheesemaking, to produce a specific benefit, e.g. smoother texture, improved flavour or accelerated ripening of cheese. In production of yoghurt, adjunct cultures have been used to manufacture products with increased levels of nutrients such as folates.

Ingredients added to a mixture to improve the effectiveness of the primary ingredient. For example colour adjuvants are used to enhance food colour.

Alternative term for Jobs tears.

Abbreviation for adenosine diphosphate.

Alternative term for glucose-1-phosphate adenylyltransferases.

Substances that are capable of adsorption. Used widely in the food and biotechnology industries. Uses include removal of unwanted materials in foods and beverages that affect either food safety or food quality. Examples include removal of proteins from white wines, pathogens from drinking water sources, radioelements from foods, oxidation products from frying oils allowing oil recovery and reuse, and bitter compounds from fruit juices. Amongst other applications are: isolation of compounds with potential for use in foods; immobilization of enzymes; as agents in analytical techniques such as gas analysis and chromatography; and removal of unwanted aroma and flavour in packaged foods.

Adhesion of the molecules of liquids, gases and dissolved substances to the surfaces of solids, in contrast to absorption, in which the molecules actually enter the medium. Adsorption is employed in hydrogenation of oils, in gas analysis, and in chromatography.

Addition of substances to foods, or substitution of food ingredients with inferior substances, with the intent of lowering the quality of and costs of producing the food and defrauding the purchaser, e.g. addition of starch to spices, and of water to milk or beer.

Common name for seeds produced by Vigna angularis, also known as azuki beans. Small red beans with a mild, sweet flavour, which are widely cultivated in Japan and China. Traditionally consumed boiled, ground into meal or used to make sweet bean pastes known as ann or an. Seeds may also be germinated to produce bean sprouts.

Confectionery produced with incorporation of air as an ingredient. Use of air adds bulk to the product without increasing its weight, improving product texture and flavour. Aeration of confectionery results in a range of products with densities ranging from 0.2 to 1.0 g/cm3. Such products include chews, mallows, honeycomb, mousses and meringues.

Introduction of air into a product to enhance texture, mouthfeel, rheology and visual appeal. The following methods are used to aerate foods: fermentation; whipping or shaking of low-medium viscosity liquids; mixing of doughs or high viscosity pastes, in which air bubbles are entrapped as surfaces come together; steam generation during slow to moderate cooking, baking or frying; entrapment of air between sheeted layers, as in pastries and croissants, or between pulled strands, as in pulled taffy and candy; frying in very hot oils, such that internal steam rapidly forms, causing the product to puff; use of chemical raising agents such as baking powders or sodium bicarbonate; rapid dry heating of small or thin products to induce blistering or slight puffing; gas injection (e.g. air, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and nitrous oxide); expansion extrusion; pressure beating (dissolution of air or gas under pressure in a syrup, fat mixture or chocolate); puffing, in which products such as breakfast cereals containing superheated moisture are subjected to a sudden release of pressure; and vacuum expansion, followed by rapid cooling to set the expanded products.

Obsolete genus of Gram negative, rod-shaped bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae, the species of which have now been reclassified into the genera Enterobacter and Klebsiella.

Organisms that require atmospheric oxygen to live. Often refers to aerobic bacteria or other microorganisms. Facultative anaerobes are aerobes that can also grow under anaerobic conditions.

Genus of Gram positive, coccoid bacteria of the family Streptococcaceae. Aerococcus viridans may be used for the production of lactate 2- monooxygenases.

Cytolytic toxins secreted by Aeromonas hydrophila. Form channels in cell lipid bilayers, leading to destruction of the membrane permeability barrier and osmotic lysis.

Genus of Gram negative, facultatively anaerobic rod-shaped bacteria. Occur in salt and fresh water, sewage and soil. Aeromonas hydrophila, frequently found in fish and shellfish and occasionally in red meat and poultry meat, may cause septicaemia, meningitis and gastroenteritis in humans.

Containers for pressurized liquids, which are released in the form of a spray or foam when a valve is pressed. Aerosol propellants, usually liquefied gases, are used in the packs. Used as dispensers for a variety of foods.

Substances, including foods, stored under pressure in a container (for example in aerosol cans) containing a propellant and released as a fine spray or froth. Also, in a chemical sense, suspensions of submicroscopic particles dispersed in air or gas.

Alternative term for the herbicide linuron.

The first stage in processing of raw sugar, in which the layer of mother liquor surrounding the crystals is softened and removed. Raw sugar is mixed with a warm, concentrated syrup of slightly higher purity than the syrup layer so that it will not dissolve the crystals. The resulting magma is centrifuged to separate the crystals from the syrup, thus removing the greater part of the impurities from the input sugar and leaving the crystals ready for dissolving before further treatment. The liquor which results from dissolving the washed crystals still contains some colour, fine particles, gums and resins and other non-sugars.

Chromatography technique in which an immobilized ligand is used to retain an analyte that is later eluted under conditions where the binding affinity is reduced. The ligand, which may be a substance such as an enzyme, hormone or antigen, is bound to a matrix such as silica.

Mycotoxicosis caused by ingestion of aflatoxins in contaminated foods or feeds.

A potent hepatocarcinogen. Toxic to many species, including humans, birds, fish and rodents.

Moderate hepatocarcinogen compared with aflatoxin B1.

Hepatocarcinogen with a toxicity similar to that of aflatoxin B1.

Carboxylated product of aflatoxin B1. Possesses less toxicity than aflatoxin B1.

Potent hepatocarcinogen with a toxicity similar to that of aflatoxin B1.

Dihydroxylated product of aflatoxin G1. Possesses less toxicity than aflatoxin G1.

Metabolic product of aflatoxin B1 in animals. Usually excreted in the milk of cattle and other mammalian species that have consumed aflatoxin B1-contaminated foods or feeds. Possesses less toxicity than aflatoxin B1.

Metabolic product of aflatoxin B2 in animals. Usually excreted in the milk of cattle and other mammalian species that have consumed aflatoxin B2-contaminated foods or feeds. Possesses less toxicity than aflatoxin B2.

Demethylated and hydroxylated product of aflatoxin B1 found in animals. Very weak toxin compared to aflatoxin B1.

Main metabolite of aflatoxin B1 found in humans and primates.

Mycotoxins produced by certain strains of the fungi Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. Formed during the growth of these fungi on commodities such as corn, peanuts, cottonseeds and soybeans. Hepatotoxic and hepatocarcinogenic in humans and animals.

Kernels of fruits produced by the tree Treculia africana. Eaten roasted as nuts or ground into meal which is used to fortify foods or to prepare a type of porridge.

Seeds produced by Parkia filicoidea or P. biglobosa. Not eaten raw, but fermented to produce food flavourings or protein-rich iru or dawadawa. The yellowish pulp surrounding the seeds can also be eaten, either raw or as an ingredient in soups, stews and beverages.

Seeds from the tropical African tree Irvingia gabonensis which are rich in fats and are used in Africa to make bread as well as a type of butter.

Common name for the African tree species, Irvingia gabonensis. Also known as bush mango or wild mango. Fruits resemble cultivated mangoes, but they are botanically unrelated. Pulp of the fruit is eaten fresh or used for the preparation of products such as juices and jams. African mango seeds, also known as dika nuts, have a variety of food uses.

Seeds of the African tree, Monodora myristica. Used as spices in Nigeria and other parts of Africa.

Edible oilseeds of the leguminous tree Pentaclethra macrophylla, native to tropical Africa. Cooked seeds are fermented to produce ugba.

Common name for Cleome gynandra, also known as cat's whiskers. The plant grows wild in most tropical countries, and is mainly consumed as a leafy vegetable. Leaves are a rich source vitamin A, vitamin C and minerals such as calcium and iron. Leaves also contain glucosinolates and phenols, which can impart astringency.

Beans produced by Sphenostylis stenocarpa. Popular grain legume of West Africa and other areas of tropical Africa. Beans have a distinctive flavour and are high in starch and moderately high in proteins. Prolonged cooking time is recommended to inactivate antinutritional factors present in the beans. The plant also produces edible tubers.

A flavour, often unpleasant, that lingers in the mouth after a food has been swallowed.

Unpasteurized Spanish cheese usually made mainly from cow milk. Fresh red chillies are added to the cheese and more are rubbed into the rind as the cheese is allowed to mature, giving the rind a buff to deep orange colour. The rind also has a dusting of white mould.

Extract obtained from various species of red seaweeds belonging to Eucheuma, Gelidium and Graciliria genera. Contains agarose and agaropectin polysaccharides. Sets following dissolution in warm water to form agar gels, which are widely used as thickeners and stabilizers in the food industry. Additionally used in gelling agents to prepare culture media for bacteriological plate counts. Also known as agar-agar.

Gels formed by dissolving agar in water. Widely used as thickeners and stabilizers, e.g. in ice cream, soups, jellies, sauces, glazes and meat products.

Alternative term for agar.

EC 3.2.1.81. Enzymes, produced often by marine bacteria, which catalyse hydrolysis of 1,3-β- D-galactosidic linkages in agarose, forming the tetramer as the predominant product. Oligosaccharides formed have potential for use in foods. Also act on porphyran.

Genus which includes some edible fungi, such as the widely cultivated common mushroom, Agaricus bisporus, which is sold commercially in flat, cup or button forms. Other edible species include the wild mushrooms A. campestris (field mushroom) and A. arvensis (horse mushroom).

Genotoxic substance present in raw mushrooms.

Neutral gelling fraction of agar, a complex polysaccharide produced by algae of the class Rhodophyceae. Composed of alternating β-D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-β-L-galactose sugars. Uses in foods include as thickeners and gelling agents, e.g. in canned meat, sugar confectionery, bakers confectionery and dairy products. Also used as a matrix for electrophoretic separation of large molecules, most frequently DNA.

Plants of the genus Agave, the flowers, leaves, stalks and sap of which are used as a source of food or beverages. Starch in buds is converted into sugar causing a sweet nectar to be exuded from the flowers. Sap is used to make a refreshing beverage or can be boiled to make sugar syrups. Fermentation of the sap produces vinegar or the alcoholic beverage pulque. Fermented sap from A. tequilana is distilled to make tequila.

Process in which properties change over time. Ageing includes the intentional storage of foods and beverages to induce desirable changes in sensory properties, such as for wines and cheeses (also ripening). The term is also used to denote the artificial hastening of this process, such as treatment of flour with ammonium persulfate to produce a more resilient dough.

Masses or collections of particles or items.

The process by which particles or items are collected together and formed into a mass.

The clumping together of cells, such as bacteria, due to cross-linking by proteins such as antibodies. Agglutination is utilized in immunological techniques for detecting bacteria in foods. In food processing, however, agglutination of starters, such as those used in the manufacture of dairy products including certain cheese varieties, can have detrimental consequences for the process outcome.

Immunological techniques in which antigens on the surface of particulate material, such as bacteria, or inorganic particles, such as latex, are precipitated with antibodies. Antibodies react with the antigens causing the cells to clump together and form visible aggregates or agglutinates. Applications include detection of Escherichia coli O157:H7.

Substances, such as antibodies and lectins found in plant seeds, which cause agglutination of cells to form clumps.

The process for forming a whole by combining several different elements or items.

The process of stirring, shaking or disturbing briskly, particularly applied to a liquid.

The part of a glycosides molecule which is not a sugar residue, e.g. the anthocyanidins component of anthocyanins.

One of the biogenic amines, which occurs in a wide range of foods, including fish, cheese and alcoholic beverages. Concentrations in foods may increase with increasing storage time.

Collective name for crops and other commodities obtained as a result of agriculture and used for provision of food, fibre or other materials. Examples include fruits, cereals, cotton and livestock. Used in a similar way to the term agricultural products.

Term used in a similar way to agricultural produce. Collective name for crops and other commodities obtained as a result of agriculture and used for provision of food, fibre or other materials. Examples include fruits, cereals, cotton and livestock.

Genus of Gram negative, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria of the family Rhizobiaceae. Occur in soil. Typically plant pathogens that form galls or tumours on roots or stems. Agrobacterium rhizogenes causes hairy root, A. rubi causes cane gall and A. tumefaciens causes crown gall.

Genus including edible fungi such as Agrocybe cylindracea, a mushroom with similar characteristics to matsutake (Tricholoma matsutake), A. aegerita and A. parasitica.

Common abbreviation for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, an epidemic disease caused by infection with human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV) and spread through direct contact with body fluids. The HIV retroviruses cause immune system failure. There is concern over their possible transmission to infants of infected mothers through breast feeding.

Olive-like fruits produced by the aiele tree (Canarium schweinfurthii) which are widely consumed in West African countries. Pulp and kernel are rich in oleic acid and palmitic acid. Oils produced from the fruits show similarities to olive oils. Also known as African black olives, mbeu or black fruit.

Removal of moisture or liquid from a substance using air, or to preserve an item by evaporation.

Measure of the condition of the air, especially with respect to the requirements for specific environments. In food processing and packaging facilities, air quality is important for food safety and shelf life, and health of personnel. Special filtration systems are used to remove airborne hazards such as microorganisms, insects and dust from the atmosphere.

Characteristics of the flow of air through, or across the surface of, a substance or piece of equipment. Airflow properties are utilized in designing ovens and driers and in determining the most appropriate ways of storing large quantities of foods such as fruits, vegetables, cereals and carcasses in order to minimize spoilage.

Meals provided for consumption during aircraft travel, designed to be served and consumed in a limited amount of space. Menu items are prepared and packaged at a central location either by the catering branch of the airline company or a contracted foods service operator. Chilled or frozen items are then reheated in special ovens during the flight.

Common name for the umbelliferous plant, Trachyspermum ammi (syn. Carum copticum). Cultivated in parts of Egypt and Asia for its pungent, aromatic seeds, typically used in flavourings for Indian foods. Related to caraway and cumin, but with a strong flavour of thyme. Also used as a source of thymol.

Cereal products produced by boiling the starchy extract from fermented corn, millet or sorghum until complete gelatinization occurs.

Deep fried pastes made from cowpeas, seasoned and flavoured with chopped capsicums, onions and salt. Popular foods in West Africa, where they are consumed as snack foods, side dishes or fast foods. Steamed cowpea paste is known as moinmoin.

Alternative term for aluminium compounds.

Abbreviation for aluminium foils.

Selective systemic herbicide used pre-emergence to control annual grasses and many broadleaved weeds among many types of vegetables and nuts. Classified by WHO as slightly toxic (WHO III).

One of the non-essential amino acids, occurring in most food proteins.

Alternative term for the plant growth regulator daminozide.

Commercially important marine fish species (Theregra chalcogramma) belonging to the cod family (Gadidae); widely distributed in the Pacific Ocean. Flesh has a moderate to low fat content and a mild, slightly sweet flavour. Normally marketed in frozen form and processed into fillets, blocks and surimi, but is also sold fresh or as a cured product. Also known as walleye pollack.

Marine fish species (Thunnus alalunga) belonging to the tuna family which is widely distributed in tropical and temperate waters. Flesh is lighter in colour and has a milder flavour than that from other tuna species. Widely considered to be the best tuna species for canning, but is also marketed fresh, smoked and frozen.

Anthelmintic widely used in sheep and cattle for treating roundworms and flukes. Along with its various metabolites, is normally depleted rapidly from edible tissues and milk.

Alternative term for egg whites.

Proteins which are soluble in water or dilute salt solutions and coagulable by heat. Albumins occurring in foods include conalbumin, lactalbumins and ovalbumins.

Genus of Gram negative, aerobic, rod-shaped, bacteria of the family Achromobacteraceae. Occur in the intestinal tracts of vertebrates, soil, water, milk, and as part of the normal skin flora. May be involved in food spoilage. Alcaligenes viscolactis may cause ropiness in milk.

Common name for ethanol, especially in the context of alcoholic beverages.

Group of enzymes catalysing the oxidation of alcohols. Alcohol dehydrogenases (EC 1.1.1.1) catalyse the oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes or ketones with concomitant reduction of NAD+. Also known as aldehyde reductases, these enzymes act on primary and secondary alcohols, and also on hemi-acetals. Catalyse the final step of alcoholic fermentation. Alcohol dehydrogenases (NADP+), EC 1.1.1.2, catalyse the oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes with concomitant reduction of NADP+. Some members act only on primary alcohols, while others also act on secondary alcohols. Alcohol dehydrogenases (NAD(P)+), EC 1.1.1.71, catalyse the oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes with concomitant reduction of NAD(P)+. Reduce aliphatic aldehydes of carbon chain length 2-14, with greatest activity on C4, C6 and C8 aldehydes. Also known as retinal reductases, since they can reduce retinal to retinol. Alcohol dehydrogenases (acceptor), EC 1.1.99.8, catalyse the oxidation of primary alcohols to aldehydes in the presence of an acceptor.

Beverages of types normally containing ethanol, which have been formulated or processed to be free from ethanol.

Beer in which the ethanol content has been reduced.

Beverages in which the ethanol content has been reduced.

Wines in which the ethanol content has been reduced.

Beverages containing a significant concentration of ethanol. Major types include beer, wines, spirits, liqueurs and rice wines.

Process by which certain microorganisms (mainly yeasts) metabolize sugars anaerobically to produce alcohols. In this process, glucose is converted to pyruvic acid, which is decarboxylated to acetaldehyde. The acetaldehyde is subsequently reduced to ethanol. A wide variety of substrates can be used to produce alcoholic beverages, e.g. grain for production of beer, and grapes and other fruits for production of wines. However, the constituent sugars must be released from these substrates prior to fermentation. Fermentation can be carried out by endogenous yeasts or by addition of starters. The most common yeasts used in the manufacture of alcoholic beverages are Saccharomyces cerevisiae and S. carlsbergensis. Synonymous with ethanolic fermentation.

Beverages with flavour and other properties typical of soft drinks (e.g. fruits flavoured beverages), but with addition of a significant concentration of alcohol.

Alkyl or aromatic compounds containing a hydroxyl (OH) group. Classes of alcohols important in the context of foods include aliphatic alcohols, e.g. methanol, ethanol and higher alcohols, polyols, glycols, aromatic alcohols, terpene alcohols and sterols.

Include members of subclass EC 1.2. Dehydrogenases which catalyse oxidation of aldehydes to the corresponding acids. In most cases, the acceptor is NAD+ or NADP+. Used in techniques to determine aldehyde levels in foods and beverages.

EC 1.1.1.21. Enzymes with wide specificity, catalysing the conversion of alditols and NAD(P)+ to the corresponding aldoses and NAD(P)H. Can be used to convert xylose to xylitol, useful as a food sweetener.

Carbonyl compounds containing the CHO radical. Many are important for flavour or off flavour in foods and beverages. Aldehydes formed by oxidation of fatty acids are important sources of flavour deterioration of lipids rich foods.

Systemic insecticide, acaricide and nematocide used for control of chewing and sucking insects (especially aphids, whitefly, leaf miners and soil-dwelling insects) in a wide range of fruit and vegetable crops. Classified by WHO as extremely hazardous (WHO Ia).

General term for polyols, sugar alcohols produced by reduction of sugars on an aldehyde group. Examples of alditols include D-sorbitol, Dmannitol and xylitol.

Alternative term bisphosphate aldolases.

EC 5.1.3.3. Convert α-D-glucose to β-D-glucose but also act on L-arabinose, Dxylose, D-galactose, maltose and lactose. Have been used extensively as components of biosensors for analysis of sugars. Also known as mutarotases and aldose mutarotases.

Cyclodiene insecticide used to control root worms, beetles and termites in soil around fruit and vegetable crops. A potent neurotoxin, which has been banned for use on crops in most countries; very stable, persisting in soil for many years.

Historically, a beer type made without hops; in modern usage, a range of British-style beers, commonly brewed with top-fermenting brewers yeasts.

Layer of cells found under the bran coat and outside the endosperm of cereal grains. Rich in cereal proteins and minerals as well as containing non-digestible carbohydrates and phytic acid.

Marine fish species (Alosa pseudoharengus) belonging to the herring family (Clupeidae); occurs in marine and estuarine waters along the Atlantic coast of North America. Marketed in fresh, dried/salted, smoked and frozen form; popularly consumed as a fried product.

Genus of dinoflagellates responsible for outbreaks of paralytic shellfish poisoning. Common species include Alexandrium catenella, A. minutum and A. tamarense.

Common name for the leguminous plant, Medicago sativa, also known as lucerne, generally grown as a fodder plant, although young leaves and alfalfa sprouts can be used as a vegetable, e.g. in Chinese cooking.

Seeds produced by alfalfa (Medicago sativa) which are germinated to make alfalfa sprouts for human consumption. Sprouts are generally eaten raw in sandwiches and salads.

Crisp sprouts obtained by germination of alfalfa seeds. Popular in salads and sandwiches.

A heterogeneous group of unicellular and multi-cellular eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms which most occur in aquatic habitats. Certain algae are harvested for commercial production of thickeners (e.g. agar, alginates, carrageenans) or proteins (e.g. single cell proteins). A few algae produce toxins that may cause food poisoning in humans via consumption of fish and shellfish.

Chemicals used to control growth of algae in water bodies or water containers. Examples include bethoxazin, dichlone, quinoclamine and simazine.

Gels derived from alginates. Calcium alginate gels are commonly used for immobilization of biocatalysts.

Alternative term for poly(β-Dmannuronate) lyases.

Any of several derivatives of alginic acid (e.g. sodium, calcium or potassium salts or propylene glycol alginate). Used as stabilizers, thickeners and gelling agents in foods.

Polysaccharide (polymer of Dmannuronic acid) obtained from brown algae such as Macrocystis pyrifera or Laminaria. Possesses significant hydrocolloidal properties making it suitable for thickening, emulsifying and stabilizing applications. Authorized for use in foods in various forms, including as sodium, calcium and potassium alginates.

Genus of Gram positive, aerobic or facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped, spore-forming bacteria. Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris and A. acidocaldarius may cause spoilage of fruit juices.

Alternative term for pasta.

High intensity dipeptide sweetener formed from L-aspartic acid, D-alanine and a novel amine. It has good water solubility, and sweetness is approximately 2000 times that of sucrose at typical usage levels. Alitame has the potential for use in a broad range of foods and beverages, such as dairy products, frozen desserts and chewing gums, and in tabletop sweeteners.

Bases which are soluble in water and include the strongly basic hydroxides of sodium, potassium or ammonium. Neutralize, or are neutralized by, acids. Solutions have a pH higher than 7. Alkalies are used in the food industry during processing (e.g. peeling of potatoes) or in cleaning applications. Alternative spelling is alkalis.

EC 3.1.3.1. Catalyse formation of orthophosphate and an alcohol from an orthophosphoric monoester, and also catalyse transphosphorylation. Enzymes with wide specificity. Uses include analysis of tannins in grapes and red wines, detection of the adequacy of pasteurization of milk and dairy products, and detection of phosphates in drinking water.

The degree to which a substance is alkaline. Level of alkalinity is expressed using pH.

Process by which the pH of a substance is increased to above 7 making it alkaline.

Organic nitrogenous bases. Many have pharmacological activity. Some foods contain toxic alkaloids, e.g. solanine in potatoes. Some alkaloids are desirable food constituents, e.g. the purine alkaloids caffeine and theobromine in tea, coffee, chocolate and cocoa.

Saturated hydrocarbons of the methane series, including methane, ethane, propane and butane.

Phenols with antifungal activity found in rye and other cereals, cashew nut shells and some bacteria and algae. Similar in structure to commercially used antioxidants such as BHA and BHT. Like other resorcinolic lipids, display biological properties and have been reported also to have anti-tumour activity, antimicrobial activity and anti-parasitic activity.

Alternative forms of genes or DNA sequences that occupy the same position (locus) on either of two homologous chromosomes in a diploid organism. If both chromosomes have the same allele, then the organism is homozygous for this allele. If the allele is different, the organism is heterozygous for this particular allele.

The ability of a substances to act as allergens.

Antigens that are capable of inducing an allergic reaction when they come in contact with specific tissues of susceptible individuals. Allergens may induce formation of reaginic antibodies. Common food allergens include proteins from shellfish, nuts, eggs, fish and milk.

Hypersensitivity states induced by the body in reaction to foreign antigens that are harmless to other individuals in similar doses. Allergic reactions are of four basic types and can be immediate or delayed in their onset. Type I reactions, which involve release of histamine from mast cells by immunoglobulin E, can be induced by many food allergens often resulting in respiratory and dermatological symptoms. Severe type I reactions include anaphylaxis. Most foods have been demonstrated to produce allergic reactions in certain individuals, however, common causes of food allergy in adults include shellfish, nuts and eggs. In children, the pattern of food allergy differs from that in adults, with allergies to eggs, milk, peanuts and fruits being common. In contrast to adults, children can outgrow allergies, especially to milk and soy infant formulas.

One of the organic sulfur compounds occurring in onions and other Allium spp. vegetables. Important flavour compounds fraction with antibacterial properties.

Meat from alligators. Most of the meat from alligator carcasses is in the tail; however, jaw meat is favoured because it has a very low content of fats and the muscle fibres are shorter. Usually, alligator meat is trimmed heavily of fat because the fat has an unpleasant flavour. Each carcass includes both light and dark meat. In comparison with free-range alligator farming, indoor farming may be associated with an increased prevalence of salmonellae. Due to biomagnification, alligators living in polluted areas can accumulate substantial concentrations of heavy metals.

Alternative term for avocados.

Large semi-aquatic predatory reptiles in the genus Alligator of the family Alligatoridae. There are two species, namely the American alligator (A. mississippiensis) and the Chinese alligator (A. sinensis). They are hunted or farmed (free-range or indoor production systems) for alligator meat and skins.

One of the organic sulfur compounds contributing to the flavour compounds fraction in garlic and Allium spp. vegetables.

EC 4.4.1.4. Also known as alliinases, these enzymes are found in onions and garlic, where they are responsible for formation of the characteristic flavour. They also catalyse formation of allicin, thought to have a number of health benefits. Have been used to determine alliin contents in garlic extracts.

Alternative term for alliin lyases.

Genus of low-growing perennial plants, that includes cultivated vegetables such as onions, leeks, shallots and garlic, and many wild edible species. Noted for their distinctive flavour and pungency, due to the presence of organic sulfur compounds such as alliin. These compounds are also associated with the therapeutic properties noted for garlic and other Allium.

Spice obtained from the dried fruits of the tropical tree, Pimenta officinalis (syn. P. dioica). Flavour resembles a blend of cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, ginger and pepper. Used in flavourings for meat products and bakery products. Also known as pimento or Jamaican pepper.

General-purpose, water-soluble artificial colorant. Also known as FDC red 40. Used to impart a reddish-yellow colour to foods such as desserts, confectionery and cereal products.

Naturally occurring volatile organic sulfur compounds found in Brassica vegetables and some other plants, such as cassava. Largely responsible for the pungency of foods such as mustard and horseradish. Possess antimicrobial properties and are used in food preservatives and as antifermentative agents in winemaking. Like other isothiocyanates, display goitrogenic properties.

Oils rich in oleic acid and low in cholesterol derived mainly from the seeds of bitter almonds (Prunus dulcis). Used in cooking and in foods as well as in the cosmetics industry.

One of the most widely grown type of nuts. Produced on the tree Prunus dulcis (syn. P. amygdalus, Amygdalus communis). Sweet almonds (P. dulcis var. dulcis) are grown for their edible nuts which are important ingredients in many confectionery products, such as marzipan, macaroons and sugar almonds. Bitter varieties (P. dulcis. var. amara) are cultivated for the almond oils, which are used as flavourings.

Plants of the genus Aloe (family Lilaceae), such as aloe vera. Used in the manufacture of foods, beverages, and pharmaceutical and cosmetic products due to their characteristic flavour, aroma and biological activity (attributed mainly to the presence of aloins).

Bitter tasting compound which is a major component of aloe leaves. An anthroquinone which on its own is used as a laxative but which also displays anti-fungal activity and analgaesic effects.

Glucans fraction derived from fungi of the genus Alternaria. Has potential for use in thickeners or stabilizers for foods.

EC 2.4.1.140. Glycosyltransferases that transfer α-D-glucosyl residues to the non-reducing terminal residues of α-D-glucans, producing glucans with alternating α-1,6- and α-1,3- linkages. Enzyme from Leuconostoc mesenteroides produces alternan, a glucan with potential applications in food additives.

Genus of fungi belonging to the class Hyphomycetes. Occur in soil and vegetable matter. Many species are pathogenic to plants. Alternaria solani may cause early blights of potatoes and tomatoes. Some species may produce mycotoxins, e.g. alternariol and alternariol-monomethyl-ether, on foods such as rice, fruits and vegetables.

Genus of Gram negative, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria. Occur in coastal and marine habitats. Alteromonas nigrifaciens may cause spoilage of fish and meat.

Double salts of aluminium sulfate and the sulfate of a monovalent metal. Alums are used as coagulating agents in purification of drinking water. Other food applications include use in colorants, manufacture of cured jellyfish products, modification of properties of starch, and use in processed fruit products and vegetable products.

Light metal, chemical symbol Al, which may be used in food packs or food processing equipment. Occurs in the trace elements fraction in the diet; there is no known nutritional requirement. There is concern that excessive intake may be toxic, and dietary aluminium has been implicated as a causative factor in Alzheimer's disease.

Chemical compounds of aluminium. May be food constituents, additives or contaminants. There is concern about possible adverse health effects of high intakes of aluminium compounds via foods or beverages.

Aluminium packaging materials which are used to decorate, protect and preserve foods, providing a barrier to external factors, such as light, oxygen and water vapour. Food applications include: foil containers and lids; metallized films; and wrappings. Also used in laminated packaging to enhance the barrier properties and rigidity of other packaging materials such as plastics and paper. There is very little migration of aluminium from aluminium foil containers into food. Environmental considerations include the importance of recycling and the use of aluminium foil laminates to fuel incineration processes.

Synonym for phostoxin. Used in fumigants for stored grain, as it releases the toxic gas phosphine.

Records of air pressure inside bubbles formed by inflating pieces of dough until rupture, a test performed on alveographs.

Apparatus used to analyse the physical properties of dough and the baking properties of wheat. A piece of dough is inflated using air until it forms a bubble and bursts. Traces of the pressure inside the bubble (alveograms) are used to indicate dough strength, stability and distensibility.

Intermediates of the Maillard reaction occurring between amino groups and reducing sugars. Amadori compounds are produced by rearrangement of nitrogen-containing carbohydrate ring structures and their fate is dependent on the conditions present in the reaction medium. Acid hydrolysis of these compounds can result in unsaturated ring systems that have a characteristic flavour and aroma, which under less acidic conditions may polymerize to form an insoluble dark-coloured material.

Traditional Nigerian paste-like product made by reconstituting yam meal in boiling water. Sometimes fortified with legume meal, e.g. cowpea meal or soy meal, to improve the protein content and nutritional quality. Typically, amala is dark brown in colour and is eaten with soups.

Genus of soft, fleshy fungi, which includes both edible and highly poisonous species. Edible species include Amanita rubescens, which should not be eaten raw, and A. caesarea. Care should be taken in the identification of these mushrooms as many cases of poisoning have occurred due to unintentional ingestion of related, lethal species, such as A. phalloides (death cap mushroom).

Class of amatoxins. Also known as amanitoxins or amantines.

Red food colorants stable to light, made from small, pigmented flowers of plants of the genus Amaranthus.

Amaranth grain that is milled for food use.

Seeds from plants of the genus Amaranthus, which are high in starch, protein, ly-sine and minerals. Also known as grain amaranth.

Starch extracted from amaranth grain. Most commonly utilized in parts of South America, Africa and Asia where amaranth is cultivated as a food crop.

Genus of dicotyledenous plants of the family Amaranthaceae. Certain species of Amaranthus are grown for amaranth grain or grain amaranth, which is high in starch, proteins, lysine and minerals. Other species are grown for their spinach-like leaves, which are good sources of protein, vitamin C, minerals and β-carotene.

Traditional Zimbabwean fermented milk resembling thick curd. Fermentation is performed at ambient temperature and naturally fermented cream may be added to improve viscosity. Often eaten with stiff corn porridge.

Powerful toxins produced by several species of mushrooms of the genus Amanita (such as Amanita phalloides (Death Cap), A. virosa (Destroying Angel) and A. verna (Fool's Mushroom). Ingestion results in abdominal pain, persistent vomiting and watery diarrhoea, usually followed by death due to organ failure.

Raw dry sausages, traditionally made in Bulgaria. They are prepared primarily from pork, but include smaller amounts of beef. Moisture content should be <33% (by wt.).

Alternative term for yellowtail.

Common name for seeds produced by Apios Americana, a legume native to North America, which also produces small edible tubers. The tubers can be dried and ground into a powder which is added to flour or used in sweeteners and thickeners.

Lobsters of the species Homarus americanus. Found in the north Atlantic Ocean. Also known as Atlantic lobsters or true lobsters.

Technique used to assess the mutagenicity of chemicals. Samples are incubated in medium containing liver homogenate and derivatives formed are mixed with a mutant strain of Salmonella Typhimurium that lacks autotrophic properties towards histidine. These properties are restored by metabolic derivatives formed in the sample during incubation in the presence of liver enzymes.

EC 3.5.1.4. Convert monocarboxylic acid amides to monocarboxylates and ammonia. Have been used for production of D-alanine from DLalaninamide.

Organic nitrogen compounds containing the CO.NH2 radical which are common constituents of foods. Include capsaicin and urea.

Two enzymes: EC 1.4.3.4 (flavincontaining), also known as monoamine oxidases and tyramine oxidases; and EC 1.4.3.6 (copper-containing), also known as diamine oxidases. The former act on primary, and usually secondary and tertiary, amines to form aldehydes, while the latter act on primary monoamines, diamines and histamine. Several bacteria are able to degrade biogenic amines through production of diamine oxidases and these enzymes have been used in biosensors for determination of biogenic amines in foods.

Organic nitrogen compounds derived from NH3 by substitution of organic radicals for the H atoms. Depending on whether 1, 2 or 3 H atoms are replaced, they are classed as primary, secondary or tertiary amines. Include a wide range of compounds important for flavour and aroma of foods. Amines are formed during breakdown of proteins and contribute to the characteristic odour of spoiled foods such as fish. Biogenic amines such as histamine may be toxic.

Organic acids characterized by possession of one or more COOH and NH2 groups. Amino acids are the main constituents of proteins. 10 amino acids (arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan and valine) are essential nutrients in the human diet. D-Amino acids Amino acid enantiomers with a specific configuration around a chosen chiral element, usually the α-carbon atom. These amino acids have the opposite configuration to L-amino acids. Many D-amino acids are naturally occurring in microorganisms, plants and animals, and some are of especial interest for the synthesis of novel sweeteners.

Nitrogen which is present in foods and other substances in the form of amino (NH2) groups.

General term for sugars substituted with an amino group at the carbon-2 position. Examples of amino sugars include galactosamine, glucosamine and furosine, an important indicator of Maillard reaction in dairy products.

EC 3.5.1.14. Hydrolyse N-acyl-L-amino acids, releasing the corresponding L-amino acids. Can be used for purification of L-amino acids from racemic mixtures of the corresponding N-acyl-DL-amino acids. Can also be used for acylation of amino acids in organic solvents.

Aromatic acid used in antimicrobial preservatives for use in foods.

Synonym for ethanolamine. Amine which in pure form exists as a colourless, combustible, hygroscopic liquid with an aroma of ammonia. A member of the biogenic amines group, which occurs in various foods, including wines and cheese.

Plant growth regulator which acts by blocking ethylene synthesis through 1-aminocyclopropane-1- inhibition of carboxylate synthases.

EC 3.4.11. Exoproteinases that hydrolyse peptide bonds and remove amino acids one at a time from the chains of proteins, working from the amino terminus. Used for reducing the bitterness of proteolytic hydrolysates, and important in flavour development in dairy products and meat.

Non-systemic acaricide and insecticide used for control of mites, scale insects, whitefly and aphids on pome fruits, citrus fruits and vegetables such as capiscums and tomatoes. Classified by WHO as slightly toxic (WHO III).

Fruits of the sub-tropical deciduous tree Emblica officinalis Gaertn. (syn. Phyllanthus emblica), also known as aonla or Indian gooseberry. Fruit are usually processed into products such as pickles, fruit juices and syrups, as the raw fruit is highly acidic and astringent. Amla is a rich source of vitamin C and also contains tannins, alkaloids, auxins and minerals. Reported to have hypocholesterolaemic and antioxidative activity and is widely used in traditional Indian medicine.

Gas, chemical formula NH3, which is oxidases formed on breakdown of nitrogen-containing compounds such as proteins, peptides and amino acids. Has a characteristic pungent odour and is toxic at high concentrations in air. May be used as in refrigerants for freezing or cooling systems.

Group of compounds containing the NH4 radical. In the context of foods, important members include betaine, inorganic ammonium salts (e.g. ammonium bicarbonate used as a leavening agent, and ammonium salts used as nutrients for yeasts) and quaternary ammonium compounds used as disinfectants.

Disease resulting from ingestion of shellfish (commonly mussels) containing the neurotoxin domoic acid (produced by certain toxigenic marine diatoms). Symptoms include abdominal cramps, vomiting, disorientation and memory loss.

Common name for a number of species of unicellular, usually microscopic, organisms of the order Amoebida and the class Sarcodina. Occur in fresh and salt water, moist soil, and as parasites in humans and animals. Characterized by ability to alter their shape, generally by the extrusion of one or more pseudopodia.

Specifically refers to an infection of the intestine, liver, or other sites with Entamoeba histolytica, a pathogenic amoeba, acquired by ingesting contaminated water or foods. In general, may be any infection caused by any amoebic parasite. Characterized by severe bloody diarrhoea, abdominal pain, fever, vomiting and ulceration of the colon. Also known as amoebic dysentery.

Penicillin antibiotic used against a wide variety of bacterial infections in farm animals. Becomes widely distributed in animal tissues following administration, but is rapidly eliminated; typically un-detectable in livers and kidneys of animals 5 days after withdrawal.

Alternative spelling for amoxicillin.

Abbreviation for adenosine monophosphate.

Technique based on measurement of current resulting from oxidation or reduction of an electroactive species. A constant potential is maintained at a working electrode or on an array of electrodes with respect to a reference electrode. The current is correlated with the content of the electroactive species.

Broad-spectrum semisynthetic penicillin antibiotic used in the treatment of several diseases in cattle, swine, sheep and poultry. Rapidly excreted, primarily in unchanged form in the urine; relatively small amounts are excreted in milk.

Genus of Gram positive aerobic bacteria, type species Amycolatopsis orientalis, of the order Actinomycetales. Isolated from soil, vegetable matter and clinical specimens. Some species produce antibiotics or biotechnologically significant enzymes. One strain has been used in biotransformations to produce vanillin from ferulic acid.

Glycosides fraction present in bitter almonds which is hydrolysed by water to yield hydrocyanic acid and benzaldehyde.

Synonym for pentanol. One of the higher alcohols, comprising five carbon atoms and a single alcohol group. Of importance in the flavour compounds fraction of alcoholic beverages. Forms part of the toxic fusel oils fraction of spirits. Used as a solvent and as a substrate for production of the flavouring amyl acetate.

Enzymes that hydrolyse the α-1,4 glycosidic linkages in both amyloses and amylopectins. Act on starch, glycogen, and related polysaccharides and oligosaccharides. Specific types are α- amylases and β-amylases.

Substances that inhibit the activity of amylases (including α-amylases and β- amylases) which catalyse the breakdown of starch into sugars. α-Amylases inhibitors present in foods can act as antinutritional factors by inhibiting the breakdown of starch into sugars by amylases present in the saliva and pancreatic secretions.

Alternative term for glucan 1,4-α-glucosidases.

Records of results obtained using amylographs to investigate flour or starch viscosity as a function of temperature.

Instruments used to measure the viscosity of cereal flours or other starch-based products during variations in temperature. Samples are mixed at a constant speed and viscosity is recorded on charts (amylograms).

Term that encompasses α- amylases, glucan 1,4-α-glucosidases, amylases, α-dextrin endo-1,6-α-glucosidases and α-glucosidases.

High molecular weight polymers that, together with amyloses, form starch. Composed of α-1,4-linked glucopyranose chains connected by α-1,6- linkages. 3-6% of glucose residues are α-1,6-linked, giving rise to a highly branched polymer. Starch that is almost exclusively composed of amylopectin is termed waxy, e.g. waxy corn (>99% amylopectin and <1% amylose); in starch of this type, retrogradation is slow or absent, thus pastes of gelatinized waxy starch are non-gelling but gum-like.

Polysaccharides composed of chains of α-1,4-linked glucopyranose residues that, together with amylopectins are constituents of starch. Amyloses have much lower molecular weights than amylopectins (at least 100-fold less) and are non-branched. In contrast to amylopectins, retrogradation of cooked amyloses is rapid, and thus gel formation occurs.

Small, heat-stable and strongly hydrophobic bacteriocins synthesized by Lactobacillus amylovorus. Show a relatively narrow inhibitory spectrum, mainly against related Lactobacillus species, although some species of Clostridium and Listeria are also sensitive.

Triterpene alcohols fraction which occurs in the unsaponifiable fraction of some fats, and may be used as a marker of origin or authenticity of fats (e.g. for detection of cocoa butter substitutes in chocolate).

Alternative term for ann.

Genus of filamentous cyanobacteria. Some species, such as Anabaena flos-aquae and A. circinalis, can form algal blooms in fresh water, producing anatoxins which are neurotoxins.

Natural and synthetic hormonal-type growth promoting substances. Most are derivatives of reproductive steroid hormones (oestrogens, progesterone and testosterone); nonsteroidal compounds (naturally or non-naturally occurring) such as zeranol and stilbene oestrogens are also available. Widely used in many countries to promote weight gain and feed efficiency in farm animals (principally in cattle); their use is not permitted in the EU, although many types may be used illegally. Also known as anabolic drugs.

Chemical substances based on natural or synthetic growth promoting hormones. Most are derived from reproductive steroids (oestrogens, progesterone and testosterone) while a few are based on polypeptide hormones (e.g. recombinant bovine somatotropin). Used to promote weight gain and feed efficiency in farm animals; use is not permit- β- ted in the EU, although illegal use has been reported.

Anabolic agents derived from or similar in structure to reproductive steroid hormones. Examples of naturally produced steroids used in animal production include oestradiol-17β and progesterone (female steroids), and testosterone (male steroid); synthetic examples include melengestrol acetate and trenbolone acetate. Used to promote growth and feed conversion efficiency in a range of farm animals. Anabolic steroids are banned for use in animal production in the EU, although many are used illegally.

Genus of cyanobacteria of the Cyanophyceae family. Anacystis nidulans may be used in the production of single cell proteins.

Organisms that do not require atmospheric oxygen to live, or cannot survive in the presence of oxygen. Often refers to anaerobic bacteria or other microorganisms. Facultative aerobes refer to anaerobes that can also grow under aerobic conditions.

In relation to foods, products that are made to resemble and act as substitutes for specific commodities. Similar to simulated foods. Reasons for producing analogues include to provide alternatives to meat for vegetarians, for consumption by those with special dietary requirements or to reduce costs.

Instruments used in analysis.

Methods used in analysis.

A severe type I allergic reaction occurring rapidly in sensitized individuals following exposure to small amounts of allergens. Symptoms can range from itching and angioedema to widespread tissue oedema, airway constriction, respiratory distress and circulatory collapse. Foods that can induce anaphylaxis include peanuts, eggs and sea foods.

Dried seeds of wild pomegranates (Punica granatum). Added in condiments or acidulants to a number of Indian foods including chutneys and curries.

Ancient variety of Phaseolus vulgaris, reintroduced onto the market following the successful cultivation of samples discovered in a New Mexico cave. The purple and white beans have a delicate flavour, similar to that of pinto beans, and a relatively low content of indigestible sugars compared with other beans.

Neurotoxins produced in fresh water by some species of filamentous cyanobacteria of the genus Anabaena, especially A. flos-aquae. Include the alkaloids anatoxin-a and anatoxin-a(s). Extremely poisonous, sometimes killing animals drinking contaminated water within a few minutes. May represent a hazard for drinking water safety.

Small herring-like fish which occurs abundantly in Pacific waters off the western coast of South America. Anchoveta (Engraulis ringens) are a commercially important source of fish meal and fish oils.

Group of herring-like marine fish species belonging to the family Engraulidae. Commercially important species include European anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus), northern anchovy (E. mordax) and Japanese anchovy (E. japonica). Anchovy are marketed in fresh, dried, smoked, canned and frozen forms and are also used to make anchovy pastes.

Oils derived from the muscle of Engraulis spp. which are rich in eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid.

Processed fish products comprising ground anchovy (Engraulis and Anchoa spp.) mixed with ingredients such as vegetable oils and seasonings. Often used in toppings for pizzas and as a component of pasta sauces and salad dressings.

Dry cured pork sausages traditionally made in Galicia, Spain.

Steroid hormone with a characteristic odour; implicated in boar taint occurring in pork produced from non-castrated male swine.

A lethal neural tube defect characterized by the absence of the cranial vault and the majority or all of the cerebral and cerebellar hemispheres. Anencephaly results from failure of the neural tube to close during embryogenesis. The risk for developing anencephaly, as with other neural tube defects, is reduced by increasing the level of folic acid in the maternal diet during pregnancy.

Synonym for p-allylphenyl methyl ether. One of the flavour compounds which occurs in herbs and spices, especially anise and fennel.

Alternative term for thiamin (vitamin B1), used commonly in Europe. Also spelt aneurine.

Alternative spelling for aneurin.

Very light, airy sponge cakes made with stiffly beaten egg whites and no egg yolks or fats. Also known as angel food cakes.

Herb obtained from umbelliferous plants of the genus Angelica, particularly A. archangelica, which is grown extensively in southern Europe. The young celery-like stalks are crystallized and used for cakes and confectionery products. decorating Leaves are occasionally used for flavouring stews, while roots and seeds are used as flavourings for some types of gin and liqueurs, respectively.

Alternative term for peptidyl-dipeptidase A.

Red pigment produced by fermentation of rice with Monascus spp. Used in natural food colorants in the Far East.

Milk fats with a very high fat content and negligible moisture content. Sometimes called water free milk fats.

Synonym for aminobenzene or phenylamine. Toxic amines fraction which is used in chemical syntheses, e.g. for dyes. Aniline may occur as a contaminant in foods.

Dead bodies of animals, particularly those used for meat production. The term is used by butchers to describe animal bodies after removal of the heads, limbs, hides and offal; these processed carcasses are also called dressed carcasses. Major animal carcass meats in Europe and the USA are produced from cattle, sheep and swine, whilst in the Middle East, Africa and Asia, water buffaloes, camels and goats are more important. Conditioning or ageing of carcasses results in break down of muscle glycogen into lactic acid, which tends to improve tenderness and shelf life of meat.

Pathological conditions that occur in animals that are used as sources of foods and may affect the quality or safety of the foods. Examples that affect food quality or safety include mastitis and malignant hyperthermia.

Lipid products derived from animal sources. Include butter, lard, tallow, suet and fish oils.

Foods derived from sources in the animal kingdom. Examples include aquatic foods (sea foods and aquaculture products), dairy products, eggs and egg products, animal fats, insect foods, meat and meat products and other animals such as worms.

Animals used to simulate human physiological and pathological processes. Animal models allow investigations that would not be ethical or practical in humans.

Proteins that are derived from animal sources, such as meat, fish, eggs and dairy products.

Proteinases present in the abomasum of young ruminants, e.g. calves, and used for clotting of milk during cheesemaking. Comprise a mixture of the main enzyme, chymosin, and pepsin, the ratio of the two enzymes affecting the final properties of the cheese. Due to shortages of animal rennets and the increasing popularity of vegetarian cheeses, microbial rennets, genetically-engineered enzyme preparations synthesized by various microorganisms and milk clot-ting enzymes of plant origin (vegetable rennets) have been developed.

Discipline relating to the science and technology of the production, management and distribution of animals, including those intended for food use.

Alternative term for meat.

Protection of the rights of animals, whether in the wild or in captivity. For animals used in agriculture as food sources, conditions (and possibly food quality) can be improved by high quality care and humane use. Implementation of high standards of care for animals used in research is believed to improve the quality of the resultant scientific data.

Type of ion exchange in which hydrogen ions and anions may be displaced from the ion exchange resin.

Negatively charged particles that have gained one or more electrons. Anions migrate towards positively charged electrodes (anodes).

Infection in humans caused by the third larval stage of the parasitic nematode Anisakis simplex, usually as a result of eating contaminated raw or undercooked sea foods. Pseudoterranova larvae have also been implicated as causative organisms. Also known as anisakidosis.

Alternative term for anisakiasis.

Genus of parasitic nematodes of the family Anisakidae. Anisakis simplex has been implicated in anisakiasis, an infection caused by consumption of contaminated raw or undercooked sea foods.

Common methoxybenzaldehyde. One of the flavour compounds occurring in a wide range of foods.

Alternative term for aniseed.

Liquorice-flavoured, fragrant seeds of Pimpinella anisum. Used as spices and flavourings for many foods and beverages, including confectionery and alcoholic beverages such as anisette.

Aniseed-flavoured liqueurs manufactured in France.

Phenolic compounds which occur naturally in a range of foods. Chlorinated anisoles derivatives may cause taints, e.g. in corks and wines.

Traditional Japanese bean jams used as the base for many confectionery products. Usually made from adzuki beans, although other beans may be used. Typically prepared by boiling and pounding the beans and adding syrups to form a paste.

Yellowish red natural colorant obtained from seeds of the tropical tree Bixa orellana. Contains a fat-soluble component (bixin) and a water-soluble component (norbixin). Used to add colour to cheese, sausage casings and bakery products.

To heat an item and allow it to cool slowly, so as to remove internal stresses.

Synonym for N-β-alanyl-1-methylhistidine. Peptide which occurs in fish and meat, and may contribute to their sensory properties.

Meat from antelopes, sometimes referred to as venison. Antelope meat has a lower fat content than lean beef, but has a similar content of essential amino acids. It may be cooked by roasting, but requires basting to prevent the meat from becoming too dry.

Various species of swift running, deer-like, hollow-horned, hoofed ruminant mammals of the sub-family Antilopinae. The major well-known species include elands, gnus, gazelles and impala. Many are hunted for their meat and some species, for example the blackbuck antelope (Antilope cervicapra), have been farmed successfully to produce antelope meat of a high quality.

Drugs used to treat internal infections of animals caused by parasitic worms (nematodes and cestodes). Most frequently used in younger farm animals which are more susceptible to parasitic infections. Residues are most likely to be found in milk when withdrawal periods have not been strictly observed; livers may also contain residues. Examples include albendazole, dichlorvos, ivermectin and thiabendazole.

Class of organic pigments (glycosides of malvidin, pelargonidin, peonidin, cyanidin, delphinidin and petunidin) giving pink, red, blue and purple colour to many foods and beverages of plant origin (including fruits and red wines). Extracted anthocyanins may be used as food colorants. Colour is pH-sensitive, and stability differs from that of artificial colorants.

Alternative term for leucoanthocyanins, anthocyanins found in a range of plant foods, and also in wines. In a polymerized form, constituents of polyphenols and condensed tannins.

One of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). Occurs as an environmental contaminant in a wide range of foods, water and packaging materials. May also be formed during smoking or cooking of foods.

Any of several plant diseases caused by fungi (Colletotrichum spp.). Characterized by dark spots that appear on leaves, stems or fruits. One of the main postharvest diseases, affecting the quality of stored produce such as bananas, citrus fruits and mangoes.

Pigments of the quinones group which occur in a range of plants and plant products.

Ability to inhibit or counteract the inflammatory response, which is an innate immune response to tissue injury by stimuli such as chemicals, trauma, extremes of temperature or microbial attack. Many foods and food components possess anti-inflammatory activity. These include some fatty acids, tocotrienol, lactoferrin, colostrum, wines and honeys.

Ability of foods or food components to slow, inhibit or reverse the process of atherosclerosis, the pathological process underlying cardiovascular disease. Consumption of foods possessing antiatherogenic activity is potentially beneficial for health as a result of the consequent decreased risk for cardiovascular diseases.

Ability to kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria.

Compounds that possess antibacterial activity, e.g. certain antibiotics, antiseptics and disinfectants.

Substances produced by microorganisms that can kill or inhibit other microorganisms; used to treat bacterial and fungal infections in humans and animals. Grouped into several different classes, the most widely used being β-lactam antibiotics (including penicillins and cephalosporins). Other classes include aminocyclitols, aminoglycosides, amphenicols, macrolides, nitrofurans and quinolones. Residues may occur in animal foods; toxic effects are unlikely, but potential hazards include allergic responses in consumers and development of resistant strains of bacteria.

Ability of microorganisms to be unaffected by treatment with specific antibiotics. Resistance can result from a range of mechanisms, including decreased permeability of the organism to the drug, modification of drug or receptor, and production of a modified protein that is unaffected by the antibiotic. Organisms can become resistant either by undergoing spontaneous mutations or by acquiring resistance genes from other resistant organisms through the processes of conjugation and transduction. Plasmids containing multiple resistance genes can be transferred not only amongst similar but also quite different bacteria.

Proteins, also known as immunoglobulins, that are produced by the body in response to foreign substances (antigens) and are capable of forming complexes with the antigens. Mechanisms by which antibodies protect the body include agglutination or precipitation of foreign antigens, lysis of foreign cells, and neutralization of toxins.

Anhydrous compounds that are added in small amounts to dry foods (e.g. salt, baking powders, pudding mixes) to prevent the particles caking together and thus ensure the product remains dry and free-flowing. Typical anticaking agents for the food industry include magnesium and calcium carbonates, magnesium stearate, calcium silicate and calcium stearate.

Ability of a food or food component to slow, inhibit or reverse the process of carcinogenesis, in particular, the ability to attenuate carcinoma formation in response to application of known carcinogens. Anticarcinogenicity of a substance can be determined in vitro using cell culture or in vivo using animals treated with carcinogens or a carcinoma cell line.

Substances that inhibit the formation of carcinomas induced by application of carcinogens. Potential dietary anticarcinogens include phytoestrogens (isoflavonoids, lignans), flavonoids, lycopene, glucosinolates, terpenes, allyl sulfides and simple phenols.

Used in a similar manner to defoaming agents to control foams formation during food processing. Examples include dimethylpolysiloxane.

Proteins occurring naturally in a range of organisms (especially cold water fish), which prevent or minimize freezing of tissues on exposure to low temperatures. Of potential use in the food industry for lowering the freezing point of foods and inhibiting recrystallization of ice. Possible applications include in ice cream, frozen foods or chilled meat products.

Ability to kill or inhibit the growth of fungi.

Substances that possess antifungal activity.

Compounds that possess antifungal activity.

Ability of substances to act as antigens by eliciting an antibody-mediated or cellular immune response.

Measure of the ability to prevent damage to DNA caused by genotoxins.

Substances that induce an immune response, either by stimulating formation of antibodies or eliciting a cellular response.

Ability of a substance to alleviate or reduce high blood pressure (hypertension). Food components that demonstrate antihypertensive activity often act as inhibitors of angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE; peptidyl-dipeptidase A). Potential dietary antihypertensive agents include bio-active peptides in dairy products, adenosine in plant foods and garlic constituents.

Ability to kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms.

Compounds that possess antimicrobial activity.

Packaging films, e.g. polyethylene films, that contain an antimicrobial substance such as chlorine dioxide. The aim of using such films for packaging foods is to inhibit microbial growth on the foods and thus extend their shelf life.

Toxic member of the trace elements group, chemical symbol Sb, which may occur in foods.

Ability of substance to reduce either spontaneous mutation rates or mutation rates induced by known mutagens. Antimutagenicity of a substance against a mutagen can be determined using the Ames test.

Substances capable of reducing background spontaneous mutation rates or reducing the ability of known mutagens to cause DNA damage. There is a wide range of antimutagens in foods and beverages, such as fruits, vegetables, spices and green tea, including catechols, Maillard reaction products and other polyphenols. Antimutagens are also produced by certain probiotic bacteria and bacteria used to produce fermented foods.

Alternative term for antifungal agents.

Substances that reduce the nutritional value of a food by reducing its nutrients content, bioavailability, digestibility or utilization. Antinutritional factors include enzyme inhibitors (proteinases inhibitors and amylases inhibitors present in a wide range of foods and microorganisms), inositol and its derivatives (including phytates and phytic acid present in legumes and cereals) and antivitamins such as thiaminase, dicoumarol, theophylline.

Natural compounds present in foods that exhibit antioxidative activity.

Substances used in preservation of foods by retarding deterioration, rancidity or discoloration due to oxidation. The most commonly used food antioxidants include BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole), BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene) and propyl gallate. Naturally occurring antioxidant compounds include tocopherols and ascorbic acid.

Ability of a substance to inhibit oxidation. Substances possessing antioxidative activity can be utilized in foods, such as oils, to inhibit oxidation, thus improving shelf life and quality. Foods possessing a high antioxidative activity have also been investigated as potentially health promoting foods, as lipid oxidation has been associated with a range of pathological processes, including atherosclerosis.

Alternative term for anti-oxidative activity.

Use of DNA or RNA sequences to bind in vivo to complementary DNA or mRNA strands, respectively, preventing correct gene expression. Can be used to turn off selectively production of certain proteins. Has been used to delay ripening in fruits, modify the composition of fatty acids in oilseeds and modify the starch contents of potato tubers.

Antimicrobial compounds used to treat human and animal body surfaces (particularly skin).

Plant growth regulators used to prevent sprouting of crops (especially root or bulb crops, e.g. potatoes) during storage.

Ability to prevent or regulate the formation of blood clots or thrombi, and thus protect against coronary heart diseases and cardiovascular diseases such as stroke. Foods and beverages displaying antithrombotic activity include plant derived products, fish oils and dairy products containing bioactive peptides.

Drugs that inhibit the production of hormones produced in the thyroid gland; used to increase meat yield in animals by reducing their basal metabolism, lowering gastrointestinal motility and stimulating extracellular water retention. May cause excess accumulation of water in muscle tissues, resulting in poorer quality meat; residues may be a potential risk to consumer health. Examples include thiouracil and methimazole.

Plant growth regulators which reduce the intensity of transpiration of food crops; used to improve yield, and product quality or shelf life.

Ability of a substance to slow, inhibit or reverse the process of tumorigenesis, in particular, the ability to attenuate tumour formation in the presence of tumour promoters or carcinogens. Antitumorigenicity of foods and food components can be determined either in vitro using cell culture or in vivo using animal models.

Ability of a substance to inhibit or reverse the progression of established tumours.

Ability to kill or inhibit the growth of viruses. Many food components possess antiviral activity. These include lactoferrin and other constituents of milk and dairy products, polyphenols, tannins and polysaccharides from some mushrooms.

Antinutritional factors that destroy or inhibit the metabolic effects of vitamins. Examples of antivitamins in foods include thiaminase (antivitamin B1, present in raw fish and other animal foods), caramel colorants (antivitamin B6) and dicoumarol (antivitamin K).

Common name for narrow-waisted, generally wingless insects of the family Formicidae. May be consumed as insect foods. Can also act as insect pests.

Common name for Tropaeolum tuberosum, also known as mashua or ulluco. An important tuber crop of the Andes, which is closely related to the garden nasturtium. Consumption of the raw tuber is limited due to the bitter taste, associated with isothiocyanates, but flavour generally becomes milder when the tubers are boiled. Nutrient contents compare well with those of other tubers. Anu flowers are also edible.

Alternative term for amla.

Alcoholic beverages intended to be consumed before meals to promote appetite. Proprietary aperitifs include products based on flavoured wines or spirits.

Common name for plant parasites of the family Aphididae. Includes insects that suck plant sap and exude sugary secretions favoured by ants. Some species are important vectors of plant viruses.

Yellow pigments of the flavonoids group which occur in a wide range of plants and plant-derived foods.

Member of the carotenoids group of natural pigments which occurs in oranges and other plant foods. May be used in natural colorants.

Term describing the protein component of conjugated proteins, e.g. the globin component of haemoglobin.

Controlled destruction of cells which occurs as a natural process during tissue growth and development. Also referred to as programmed cell death. Failure of apoptosis is thought to be involved in uncontrolled cell growth in some types of cancer, and also autoimmune diseases.

Weight of a porous material per unit volume. Apparent density of a porous substance is always lower than the theoretical density of its constituents.

Perception of the outward form of a substance. The appearance of a food contributes to its overall sensory properties.

Swiss semi-hard cheese made from cow milk. It can be made with skim milk and brine cured for 12 months, or with whole milk and cured with brine, pepper and sediment from white winemaking.

A natural longing to satisfy bodily needs, particularly, but not exclusively, the recurring desire for food. Appetite is increased in the state of hunger and decreased during satiety. Appetite for foods, in general, and for particular foods, may become modified over time. A particularly intense appetite for certain foods occurs during cravings.

Spirits manufactured by distillation of fermented mashes based on apples. Well known apple brandy types include calvados.

Alternative term for cider.

Apple juices which have been concentrated. May be diluted to produce normal strength apple juices or used in manufacture of other beverages or foods.

Juices extracted from apples (Pyrus malus). Commonly consumed as beverages, but may be fermented to cider or used in manufacture of apple brandy.

Alternative term for apple juices, especially those to be fermented in manufacture of cider.

Pectins obtained from apples. Apple pomaces are one of the main commercial sources of pectins.

Outer skins of apples; used as a source of apple pectins.

The solids residue remaining after extraction of apple juices or apple musts.

Soft mass prepared from the flesh of apples by processes such as slicing, chopping and mashing. Typically available in dried, frozen or canned forms and used in products such as sauces, infant foods and desserts.

Thick, smooth preparations made from cooked, strained apples. Used in products such as infant foods and apple sauces.

Sauces made by stewing chopped apples with sugar to form a pulp. Available in canned or bottled form. Used in desserts and as an accompaniment to meat dishes, especially pork.

Vinegar made using apples as the starting material. Similar to cider vinegar.

Alternative term for cider.

One of most widely grown and economically important fruits of temperate regions. Most commercial varieties are derived from Malus pumila and are grown for production of dessert, cooking, ornamental or cider apples. Fruits are large round pomes that range in flavour from sweet to sharp, and in colour from green and yellow to red and brown. Useful source of vitamin C, potassium and dietary fibre. Cooking apples are usually green and larger and more acidic than dessert apples. Crab apples grow wild in many regions; these are barely edible, but can be used to make jelly.

Jams made from fresh or dried apricots. Used as spreads, as glazes for pies and cakes, or as confectionery ingredients.

Juices extracted from apricots (Prunus armeniaca).

Constituents of apricot seeds, rich in oils and proteins, but limited in use by the presence of amygdalin (yielding toxic hydrogen cyanide (HCN)). Detoxified apricot kernels are used in the manufacture of bitter almond oils, persipan and marzipan substitutes. Also consumed as roasted, salted or dried products in some countries.

Fruit nectars prepared by addition of water and/or sugar to apricot juices.

Soft, succulent flesh from apricots, which is used in a range of processed foods, such as fruit juices, ice cream and infant foods. Sheets of apricot pulp are dried to make apricot leathers.

Flesh of apricots that has been mashed to a thick, paste-like consistency by various means, such as sieving, mashing or processing in a blender. Used in a range of products including infant foods, cakes and fruit juices.

Hard seeds found in the centre of the flesh of apricots. The kernels within the outer casing are utilized as a source of oils and in making a form of marzipan substitute as well as being eaten roasted, salted or dried. Also called stones.

Fruit wines manufactured by alcoholic fermentation of mashes prepared from apricots (Prunus armeniaca).

Stone fruits from Prunus armeniaca (syn. Armeniaca vulgaris), a tree which originated in ancient China and is now widely cultivated in warm temperate zones. The orange/yellow coloured fruits are utilized in a similar manner to peaches and are eaten fresh, canned or dried. The distinctive aroma makes the fruit suitable for manufacture into apricot jams and apricot juices or for incorporation into flavourings for products such as ice cream, desserts and infant foods. Compared with other fruits, apricots have a high nutritional value, including high amounts of vitamin A, carotenes, proteins, potassium and iron.

Production of aquatic organisms under controlled or semi-controlled conditions; mainly for food purposes. A wide range of aquaculture products, including farmed fish, farmed shellfish, aquatic plants and algae are produced commercially across the world.

Aquatic organisms (such as fish, shellfish and aquatic plants) produced by aquaculture for food or industrial purposes.

Thermostable alkaline serine proteinases secreted by various bacteria, especially Ther-mus aquaticus.

Foods derived from aquatic organisms, including fish, shellfish, aquatic plants and algae.

Scandinavian spirits, distilled from fermented mashes based on grain or potatoes, and commonly flavoured with aromatic seeds and spices. Also known as akvavit.

Polysaccharides in which the main constituent sugar is arabinose. Present in fruits and fruit juices, and may be used as additives such as bulking agents in foods.

Flat round bread composed of yeasts leavened dough which, when baked, is easily split to make sandwiches. Also known as pita bread.

Non-commercial genus of the mustard family of plants. Arabidopsis thaliana is commonly used as a model for plant research studies.

Polysaccharides in which the main constituent sugars are arabinose and galactose. Occur in the pectic substances fractions of a wide range of plant foods, including fruits, vegetables and cereals. May be of importance for the processing properties of plant foods.

Monosaccharide of five carbon atoms (pentoses) found predominantly in plants as a component of complex polysaccharides, such as gums and pectins.

Alternative term arabinofuranosidases.

Polysaccharides in which the main constituent sugars are arabinose and xylose. Form part of the pentosans fraction in cereals and cereal products, and may be of importance for technological properties in processes such as baking and brewing.

Polyol synthesized by reduction of arabinose or produced by microbial fermentation of plant hydrolysates.

One of the saturated fatty acids with 20 carbon atoms. Occurs at low concentrations in a wide range of fats, oils and tissue lipids.

One of the ω-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids with 20 carbon atoms. Widely distributed in foods and essential in the human diet.

One of the two major globulins present in peanuts, the other being conarachin. As well as having good nutritional quality, both globulins play an important role in flavour development during peanut processing.

Alternative term for groundnut oils.

Asian spirits which may be manufactured from a range of raw materials, including palm juices, sugar juices, dates or rice. Also know as arrack.

Alternative term for rice cakes.

Fruits of the Mediterranean shrub Arbutus unedo, also known as strawberry tree fruits or madrona fruits. The bitter-tasting red berries are rarely eaten fresh, but are used in a range of fruit products, including jellies, jams and wines. Also used to make liqueurs in France and Portugal.

Genus of Gram negative, microaerophilic rod-shaped bacteria. Occur in the reproductive and intestinal tracts of animals and humans. Some species are pathogenic, e.g. Arcobacter butzleri, which frequently contaminates raw chicken meat. Raw milk is also a source of infections.

A salmonid fish (Salvelinus alpinus) from northern Europe and North America which occurs in fresh and marine water; some forms are landlocked, spending their whole lives in freshwater, while highly migratory forms spend most of their lives at sea. Flesh flavour is highly regarded. Marketed fresh, smoked, canned, and frozen.

Any of various Asiatic palm trees of the genus Areca, including A. catechu, the source of betel nuts.

Alternative term for betel nuts.

Genus of palms which includes Arecastrum romanzoffianum (syn. Syagrus romanzoffianum), also known as queen palm or pindo palm. Stems are utilized for starch (sago), while young buds are for α-N-consumed as a vegetable. Seed kernels have been reported to have potential as a source of vegetable fats.

Genus of palms, some of which are used as a source of edible fruits, palm sugar and palm wines.

Alternative name used in Colombia for tortillas, round, thin unleavened pancakes originating from Mexico which are traditionally made with corn flour and baked on a hot surface.

Oils derived from any species of the genus Argemone (prickly poppies) which are found in North America and the West Indies.

One of the basic amino acids, present in most food proteins and essential in the human diet.

A group of bivalve molluscs similar to cockles. Edible species include Scapharca subcrenata, Arca noae and Anadara broughtoni.

A high-quality brandy manufactured in a specified region of the Gers district in southwest France.

Genus of mainly lignicolous fungi belonging to the family Agaricales and once called Armillariella. Species include the edible fungi Armillaria mellea, also known as the honey fungus, bootlace fungus and shoestring fungus.

Former name for the genus of fungi Armillaria which includes edible species.

Commercial name for a range of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), which occur as contaminants in foods.

Physiological sensation, also known as smell, that results from stimulation of olfactory receptors in the nasal mucosae and the interpretation of this information by a specialized area of the cerebral cortex. Food aroma, which is generated by release of volatile aroma compounds from the food, makes a marked contribution to overall flavour.

Volatile compounds that are present in foods and contribute towards aroma.

Concentrates typically obtained by extracting and/or concentrating volatile compounds from a source material, e.g. fruit juices, coffee or butter. Can be used as flavourings in various foods or to restore aroma lost during processing. Other methods of producing aroma concentrates include fermentation and enzymic modification (e.g. for cheese flavour concentrates).

Alternative term for aroma compounds.

Organic compounds characterized by a cyclic, conjugated structure, such as occurs in benzene. Some aromatic compounds, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), may occur as toxic or carcinogenic contaminants in foods. Also refers, more generally, to flavour compounds or aroma compounds present in foods and beverages.

Procedure for increasing the aroma of a food or beverage. Strategies include the addition of aroma compounds to the product or container, and the facilitation of aroma compound release through chemical or mechanical means. Also refers to the chemical conversion of non-aromatic compounds into aromatic compounds.

Wines, often fortified wines, which have been flavoured with herbs, spices or other plant-derived ingredients.

Alternative term for flavourings.

Violet-black berries produced by Aronia melanocarpa, also known as black chokeberries. Contain high amounts of anthocyanins, folic acid and minerals, and are believed to possess health giving properties. Used as the source of juices and in the production of natural food colorants. May also be used to impart colour and flavour to other beverages, dairy products, confectionery and snack foods.

Common name for Arracacia xanthorrhiza, a member of the umbellifer family, which is grown in South and Central America, primarily for its large, starchy, edible roots, which resemble carrots or parsnips in appearance. Roots, which are also known as Peruvian carrots or Peruvian parsnips, are cooked and consumed as a vegetable, or processed into a variety of products including infant foods, soups, bakery products and alcoholic beverages such as chicha. The young stems can be used in salads and have similar characteristics to celery.

Alternative term for arak.

Common name for Sagittaria sagittifolia, a perennial herb with arrowhead-shaped leaves which grows in ponds, rice fields and swamps in parts of South-East Asia. The starchy roots (corms) are peeled, sliced and cooked in stews or fried. Widely cultivated in China and Japan.

Starch obtained from rhizomes of Maranta arundinacea, a West Indian plant. Neutral in flavour and easily digestible, it is used as a thickener in invalid diets, and also in fruit sauces, pie fillings and desserts, where it imparts a clear finish. Can also refer to starch obtained from roots or rhizomes of several other tropical plants.

A relatively under-exploited flatfish species (Atheresthes stomias) occuring in north to mid-Pacific waters. Flesh texture is less firm than that of most other flatfish, due to presence of a cysteine proteinase in flesh; this species therefore has a low market value compared with other flatfish. Marketed in fillet form; also frozen into blocks and processed into portions.

Toxic salts of arsenic acid, which may occur as contaminants, especially in drinking water.

Toxic element which may occur as a contaminant in a range of substances, including water and sea foods. Chemical symbol As.

Genus of plants used as the source of spices. Includes davana (Artemisia pallensis), tarragon (A. dracunculus), wormwood (A. absinthium) and mugwort (A. vulgaris).

Inflammation of one or more joints resulting in swelling, redness and pain. A range of conditions that includes rheumatoid, autoimmune, infectious and osteoarthritides. Increased risk for certain arthritides has been linked with dietary and nutritional factors, including poor nutrition and consumption of meat, fried foods and fats. Oils rich in n-3 fatty acids, such as fish oils, borage oils and evening primrose oils, vegetarian diets and nutrients with antioxidative activity have been associated with symptomatic relief.

Genus of Gram positive, obligately aerobic bacteria of irregular cell form. Occur in soil. Arthrobacter nicotianae may be used as starters in the production of smear-ripened cheese. Other species may be used in the production of industrial enzymes.

Term generally applied to the edible buds from Cynara scolymus (globe artichokes). May also refer to the edible tubers from Helianthus tuberosus (Jerusalem artichokes), Stachys sieboldii (Japanese artichokes) and S. affinis (Chinese artichokes).

Colorants which have been manufactured synthetically, as opposed to those extracted from natural sources (natural colorants). Tend to be less expensive and have better colour intensity, uniformity and stability than natural colorants. Examples include azo dyes and FDC colours.

Flavourings which contain one or more artificial components not yet identified in a natural material. Synthetic flavourings containing the same chemicals as those found in a natural product are known as nature-identical. Synthetic flavourings are usually less expensive than natural flavourings, and less likely to vary in quality, availability and processing stability.

Alternative term for simulated foods.

Systems of computer programs and data structures which are modelled on the human nervous system and brain. Incorporate large numbers of processors operating in parallel, each with an individual sphere of knowledge which has been fed into it along with rules about relationships. Networks can use this information to recognize patterns in large amounts of data. Used in the food industry in modelling of processes and predicting the behaviour of foods under specific conditions. Also known as neural networks.

Synthetic sweeteners, usually many times sweeter than sucrose. Examples include aspartame, saccharin and alitame. Widespread applications include low calorie foods, soft drinks and sugar free foods.

EC 1.1.3.7. Catalyse oxidation of primary alcohols with aromatic rings to form aromatic aldehydes, including some aroma compounds and flavour compounds such as benzaldehyde, and hydrogen peroxide. Involved in lignin degradation by white rot fungi.

Spanish semi-soft cheese made from pasteurized cow milk. Elastic fine rind and creamy body. Eaten as a dessert with honey, as a sandwich filling or in cooking.

Chemical symbol for arsenic.

Bitter, strong smelling resin extracted from the roots of the umbelliferous plant Ferula foetida. The pungent garlic-like aroma and flavour are due to the presence of sulfur compounds. Used in spices for Asian foods, pickles and Worcestershire sauces.

Fibrous magnesium calcium silicates, which may be used for thermal insulation or in filter aids. Some types are carcinogenic. Asbestos fibres may occur as contaminants in substances such as water.

Small marine filter feeding organisms which are primitive chordates (not invertebrates) and are widely distributed around the seas of the world. Benthic non-motile organisms, often attached to outer surfaces of boats, jetties, and oil rigs. Some species are utilized as sea foods, particularly Halocynthia roretzi, Styela clava and S. plicata.

Genus of fungi of the order Dothideales. Species may cause pulse crop diseases. Ascochyta pisi causes leaf spot disease in pea plants.

Former term for a large class of fungi containing approximately 2000 genera. Still commonly used to describe members of the subdivision Ascomycotina. Typically terrestrial saprotrophs or parasites. Includes most yeasts, the edible morels (Morchella) and truffles (Tuber), the cup fungi, the powdery mildews, black mildews and sooty moulds.

Alternative term for L-ascorbate oxidases.

Salts of ascorbic acid, including sodium ascorbate and calcium ascorbate, which can be used as food additives. Food uses include as antioxidants in products such as meat products, as browning inhibitors for fruits and vegetables, and as bakery additives.

Synonym for vitamin C, an antioxidant nutrient present in a wide range of foods. Necessary for growth of bones and teeth, for maintenance of blood vessel walls and subcutaneous tissues, and for wound healing; dietary deficiency results in scurvy. Used in food additives, with applications in food antioxidants and bakery additives.

One of the fatty acid esters that are used as food antioxidants. Formed by esterification of ascorbic acid and palmitic acid. Particular applications include in oils and meat products.

Packaging technique in which an aseptic product is placed into an aseptic container in an aseptic environment. The sealed container is designed to maintain aseptic conditions until the seal is broken. Used to enhance shelf life of foods, e.g. fruit juices. Advantages over conventional sterilization techniques include high product quality, optimization of sterilization, minimum energy consumption and low production costs. Aseptic packaging is not suitable for use with products containing large particles, and shelf life stability is shorter than for sterilized foods.

High-temperature, short-time process which results in products with improved texture, colour, flavour and nutritional values compared with conventional canning. This technology involves filling of pre-sterilized containers with a commercially sterile cooled product, followed by aseptic hermetic sealing with a pre-sterilized closure in an atmosphere free of microorganisms.

Mineral content of foods, determined by combustion of the sample under defined conditions and weighing of the residue.

Unpasteurized Italian hard cheese originally made from ewe milk, but now made entirely from cow milk. Two types of Asiago are made, i.e. a lightly pressed cheese made from whole milk and matured for 20-30 days (Asiago Pressato cheese) and a mature cheese made with skim milk (Asiago d'Allevo). An intense flavour develops in cheese matured for 2 years.

Type of Asiago cheese that is mild and delicately flavoured. Interior of this fresh cheese is white with a hint of straw colouring.

Pears produced by Pyrus pyrifolia and P. serotina. Grown extensively in Asia, particularly Japan, China and Korea, and currently gaining popularity in the West, partly because of their distinctive crisp texture, which remains unchanged after picking and long-term cold storage. Frequently called apple pears due to their crisp, juicy qualities, they are also known as Oriental pears or Japanese pears.

One of the non-essential amino acids, occurring in most food proteins.

Lilaceous plants of the genus Asparagus, particularly A. officinalis, which is widely cultivated in Europe and the USA for its edible young shoots (spears). Lightly cooked asparagus spears are regarded as a luxury vegetable and can be eaten hot or cold. They are also widely used in soups.

Common name for seeds produced by Vigna sesquipedalis. Long thin legumes that resemble string beans, but which are actually related to cowpeas. Flavour is similar to that of string beans and has also been likened to that of asparagus. Also known as sitao, Chinese long beans or yard-long beans due to their ability to grow up to 3 feet in length. Asparagus beans are picked before reaching this stage and used in salads or stir-fries. Young leaves and stems are steamed and consumed as vegetables.

Common name for Lotus tetragonolobus, a southern European plant, occasionally grown for its edible pods, which are harvested before maturity and consumed as a vegetable (usually steamed).

Low calorie artificial sweetener (chemical name aspartyl phenylalanine methyl ester, also known as NutraSweet). A dipeptide (aspartic acid and phenylalanine) ester, approximately 160-200 times as sweet as sucrose. Non-cariogenic and without an aftertaste. Loses sweetness on prolonged storage and exposure to heat (unsuitable for baking). Safe for diabetics but not for individuals with phenylketonuria as phenylalanine is released during metabolism of aspartame.

EC 2.6.1.1. Catalyse the conversion of L-aspartic acid and 2-oxoglutaric acid to L-glutamic acid and oxaloacetic acid. Also act on L-tyrosine, L-phenylalanine and L-tryptophan.

One of the non-essential amino acids, occurring in most food proteins.

Systematic name for aspartame.

Antifungal compound produced by Aspergillus flavus.

Genus of fungi of the class Hyphomycetes. Some species can cause food spoilage (e.g. Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus and A. niger). Many species produce mycotoxins (e.g. aflatoxins, cyclopiazonic acid, ochratoxins, patulin). Certain species are used in production of industrial enzymes (e.g. synthesis of amylases, catalases, proteinases and lipases by A. niger). Also involved in production of fermented foods (e.g. manufacture of koji, miso, sake and soy sauces by A. oryzae) and other agents for the food industry (e.g. citric acid and gluconic acid production by A. niger).

Savoury clear jelly made from meat or fish stocks, often made with gelatin. Used as a setting gel or for glazes on foods such as meat and vegetables. Also available in powdered form.

Instruments or equipment for drawing fluids by suction from vessels or cavities.

Milk obtained from asses. Close in composition to human milk.

Pigments fraction of the carotenoids group, occurring in crustacea.

Pigments fraction of the carotenoids group, occurring in crustacea.

A breathing disorder that results from spasm of the muscles surrounding the airways of the lungs (bronchospasm) that is generally reversible. Narrowed airways causes shortness of breath, wheezing, coughing and congestion. Atopic (allergic) asthma is most common and can be associated with other food allergies. A wide range of asthma triggers have been identified, including environmental pollutants, drugs, cold air and exercise. Asthma triggered by foods is rare; food triggers include sulfites and sulfiting agents found in a range of foods and known food allergens.

A sensation of dryness in the mouth combined with roughening of the oral epithelium and puckering of the muscles of the face and cheeks. It is induced by foods containing chemicals such as tannins and other polyphenols, acids and aluminium salts. Sensory perception of astringency has been attributed to binding of tannins to salivary proteins.

Genus of palms including Astrocaryum vulgare, which, along with other palms, is a source of tucuma oils and edible fruits.

A pathological process resulting in thickening and hardening of the walls of medium and large arteries due to formation of atherosclerotic plaques. Cardiovascular diseases produced by occlusion of the affected arteries can be of gradual onset (angina, peripheral vascular disease) or sudden onset (stroke, myocardial infarction). Rate of development of atherosclerosis is affected by many factors including lifestyle and diet.

Commercially important pelagic marine fish species (Scomber scombrus) which occurs abundantly in cold and temperate coastal waters, often forming large shoals near the surface. Flesh is firm and fatty with a distinctive savoury flavour. The species is marketed in fresh, frozen, smoked and canned forms and is popularly consumed fried, grilled or baked.

A well known freshwater fish/marine fish species (Salmo salar) of high commercial importance; indigenous to geographical areas linked to the Atlantic ocean but is also cultured in other areas. World Atlantic salmon production is more than half a million tonnes per year. Flesh has a highly valued flavour. It is marketed and consumed in a wide range of forms, including fresh, frozen, smoked and canned products.

Alternative term for atomic absorption spectroscopy.

Technique in which the mineral composition of a sample is determined from the absorption of light by atoms. A monochromatic source of light at a specific absorption wavelength is passed through the sample following atomization by various means. Often abbreviated to AAS.

Technique in which the mineral composition of a sample is determined from the emission of light from excited atoms at wavelengths characteristic of the atoms.

Imaging technique in which the surface of the sample is scanned using a small tip to construct a 3-dimensional image. The tip may be in contact with or just above the surface. Molecular forces exerted against the tip by the surface are used by image processing software to give information about the surface.

Devices that convert a substance into very fine particles or droplets.

Abbreviation for adenosine triphosphate.

Include EC 3.6.1.3 and EC 3.6.1.32-39. Catalyse hydrolysis of ATP to ADP. Can be used as an index of protein denaturation in meat during storage. Functional ATPases are required for growth of yeasts and lactic acid bacteria in the presence of acids, e.g. during fermentation of wines and dairy products.

Selective systemic herbicide used for pre-and post-emergent control of annual grasses and broadleaved weeds in a range of cereals (particularly corn and sorghum), fruits, vegetables, coffee, oil palms and sugar cane. Often used in combination with other herbicides. Classified by Environmental Protection Agency as slightly toxic (Environmental Protection Agency III).

Indian wholemeal wheat flour used in preparation of Indian bread.

Genus of palms, including Attalea colenda and A. cohune, used as a source of palm oils.

A traditional product of the Ivory Coast made by fermentation and steam-cooking of cassava roots.

Egg-shaped fruits of Solanum melongena, a native plant of tropical Asia, but now cultivated widely in tropical and warm temperate regions. Fruits are usually black or dark purple in colour, although green, creamy white or yellow varieties are also available. Consumed as a vegetable, typically fried or stuffed, or used as an ingredient in ratatouille, moussaka and curries. Also known as egg plants in North America and brinjal in India and Africa.

Genus of yeast-like fungi of the class Hyphomycetes. Occur in sea foods, fruits and vegetables. Aureobasidium pullulans may cause spoilage of stored beef.

Genus of fungi which includes edible species, e.g. Auricularia auricula and A. polytricha.

Mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus ustus.

Seeds produced by the tree, Castanospermum australe. Also known as Moreton Bay chestnuts or blackbeans. Poisonous when fresh, but can be consumed after roasting to remove toxins. Common to some parts of Australia, where they are consumed by aborigines. Contain castanospermine, an antiviral of potential use in AIDS therapy.

The genuineness of foods and beverages; can be with respect to various factors, such as ingredient content, processing methods and geographical origin. For certain foods and beverages, labelling schemes have been implemented to indicate authenticity. A range of methods is used to test authenticity depending on the potential method of adulteration.

Strong containers employed in processes using high pressures and temperatures, e.g. steam sterilization.

Endogeneous enzymes found in cell walls which can hydrolyse certain structural cell components (e.g. peptidoglycans in bacteria) to bring about autolysis.

Process by which the structural components of cells are degraded by their autolysins. Usually occurs after the cells have experienced a traumatic event such as injury or death. May result in the release of intracellular enzymes from cells, which may play an important role in cheese ripening. Can be responsible for inactive cultures or for sensory defects (by autolytic products) in wines and beer.

An autocatalytic oxidation reaction that occurs spontaneously in the atmosphere. Initiators include heat and light. Unsaturated fatty acids present in foods are susceptible to autoxidation when exposed to the air, with the reaction proceeding by a free-radical mechanism. The reaction may result in production of stable nonpropagating products that contribute to off flavour. In addition, radicals produced by autoxidation may cause bleaching of food colour and destruction of vitamin A, vitamin C and vitamin E. This type of deterioration is prevalent in fried snack foods, nuts, oils, and margarines.

Plant growth regulators important for ripening and quality of fruits.

The extent to which dietary nutrients are present in a form that can be absorbed and utilized. Similarly, bioavailability.

Sterols fraction which occurs in the unsaponifiable fraction of many vegetable oils. In combination with other sterols, avenasterol concentration may be used as an index for identification and for monitoring the authenticity of vegetable oils samples.

Glutelins present in oats; the major storage proteins of this cereal.

Insecticides and acaricides which may be used for control of pests on plants and parasites on animals. May occur as contaminant residues in foods.

Glycoproteins fraction which occurs in egg whites and binds biotin.

Unsaturated oils rich in oleic acid derived from the pulp of avocados (Persea americana).

Common name for Persea americana, also known as alligator pears. A pear-shaped fruit with a leathery green or black skin, enclosing yellow to orange flesh and a single pit. Compared with other fruits, avocados have high protein and oil contents. Traditionally marketed fresh and used like a vegetable, they can also be processed into guacamole or used as a source of avocado oils. Fruits do not ripen if left on the tree and are usually treated with ethylene in ripening rooms to ensure uniform maturation.

Narrow-spectrum glycopeptide antibiotic active against Gram positive bacteria; used mainly for growth-promoting purposes (improves absorption of nutrients from the gastrointestinal tract) in chickens, turkeys, swine and calves. Remains virtually unabsorbed within the gastrointestinal tract and is rapidly eliminated in the form of the parent compound; no withdrawal period is required.

The symbol for water activity, which is a measure of the water vapour generated by the moisture present in a hygroscopic product. It is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapour to the partial pressure of water vapour above pure water at the same temperature. In foods, it represents water not bound to food molecules. Level of unbound water has marked effects on the chemical, microbiological and enzymic stability of foods.

Rice-derived spirits originating in the Okinawa region of Japan.

A fish species (Plecoglossus altivelis) distributed in western North Pacific waters that regularly migrates between the sea and freshwater; some forms remain in lakes and rivers for long periods. Ayu are cultured in several Asian countries and their flesh flavour is highly regarded. Usually marketed fresh and consumed fresh, fried and grilled.

Sedative drug used primarily to reduce stress in swine prior to and during transportation. Frequently administered to animals a few hours prior to slaughter; high levels of active residues in edible tissues is a potential hazard to consumers. Also known as Stresnil.

Group of toxins produced by marine algae. Cause food poisoning in people eating contaminated shellfish, especially mussels.

Non-systemic insecticide and acaricide used for control of chewing and sucking insects and spider mites on fruit trees, vegetables, cereals and coffee plants. Classified by WHO as highly hazardous (WHO Ib).

Non-systemic insecticide used for control of chewing and sucking insects on fruit trees, vegetables, cereals, nuts, sugar cane and coffee plants. Classified by WHO as highly hazardous (WHO Ib). Also known as guthion.

Series of artificial colorants containing at least 1 chromophoric azo group. Examples include amaranth, tartrazine, Sunset Yellow and Carmoisine.

Oxidizing bakery additives used to age and bleach cereal flour, and to condition dough for breadmaking.

Alternative term for the insecticide monocrotophos.

Genus of Gram negative, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria of the family Azotobacteraceae. Occur in soil and water. Capable of nitrogen fixation, thereby converting atmospheric nitrogen into a chemical form which is usable by plants.

Member of the strobilurins class of fungicides. Active against a broad spectrum of fungi and used on a wide range of crops.

Abbreviation for boiling point.

Common name for Carica pentagona. A seedless pentagonal-shaped fruit, which is related to pawpaws and believed to have originated in Ecuador. The ripe fruit is golden yellow in colour and has a delicate strawberry-like aroma. Flesh is very juicy, slightly acidic, low in sugar and rich in vitamin C. Immature green fruit can be used as a vegetable.

Edible oils derived from the babassu (Brazilian palm nut), which have similar fatty acids composition and physical properties to coconut oils. Used as a cooking oil, as well as in the manufacture of soaps and cosmetics.

Softer, central parts of the babassu nut (Brazilian palm nut) which form the source of babassu oils.

Small ears of immature corn, generally harvested between 2 days before and 3 days after silk-ing. Baby (dwarf) corn is sold fresh or canned and generally measures around 4-9 cm in length and 1-1.5 cm in diameter. Popular in Oriental cuisine.

Alternative term for infant foods.

Generally refers to any rod-shaped bacterial cells. May be used specifically to refer to a member of the genus Bacillus.

Genus of Gram positive, aerobic or facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped, spore-forming bacteria of the family Bacillaceae. Occur in soil and water. Bacillus cereus can cause spoilage of pasteurized milk and cream, while other species can cause spoil-age of low acid canned foods. Some species are used commercially as sources of enzymes (e.g. glucose isomerases, subtilisins). B. cereus can cause a diarrhoeal type of food poisoning (associated with consumption of meat, milk, vegetables and fish) or an emetic type of food poisoning (associated with consumption of rice, potatoes, pasta, sauces, puddings and soups). B. thuringiensis is an important insect pathogen used as an agent for biocontrol. Some species have now been transferred to the new genus Geobacillus, including G. stearothermophilus and G. thermoleovorans.

Peptide antibiotic produced by the bacteria Bacillus subtilis and B. licheniformis; active against Gram positive microorganisms and used (in the form B of zinc bacitracin) to promote growth in calves, lambs, swine and turkeys. Also used to enhance egg production in poultry and for treatment of mastitis in cows. Remains virtually unabsorbed in the gastrointestinal tract of animals; distribution in edible tissues is considered negligible.

Fatty tissue covering the back area on animal carcasses. In swine, a particularly thick fat layer is present in the back region, which is thick enough to be separated and used independently. Swine backfat is fairly soft at room temperature. Backfat thickness is thought to affect attributes of pork such as flavour and eating quality.

Meat from the sides, backs and bellies of swine, preserved by curing; it may be smoked or un-smoked. When bacon is sold after curing but before smoking, it is called green bacon, pancetta or raw kaiserfleisch. Smoking produces a strong flavour in bacon. In order to decrease the retail price per kilogram, some bacon manufacturers increase the weight of their product using water, phosphates and other ingredients. Most bacon is sliced into rashers before retail; middle rashers have a round eye of lean meat, whilst streaky bacon is the tail end of the loin. A rasher of bacon can contain up to 40% fat.

Round, flat cakes of chopped or minced bacon, cooked by grilling or frying. Bacon-burgers are usually eaten in bread rolls, and can be served with lettuce, tomatoes, onions, pickles, mustard and tomato ketchups.

Heterogeneous group of usually unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms, generally possessing a characteristic cell wall, and found in virtually all environments. Some cause diseases in humans and animals, while others are used in the manufacture of foods (e.g. dairy products).

Quantitative estimate of the total bacteria present in a given habitat, in terms of mass, volume, or energy.

Estimations of numbers of bacteria in a sample.

Spoilage caused by the action of bacteria.

Spores (either endospores or exo-spores) formed by bacteria (e.g. Bacillus and Clostridium species) under conditions of nutrient limitation. Endospores are resistant and may be disseminative, rather than reproductive, while bacterial exo-spores are characteristically reproductive and disseminative. They are generally more resistant than vegetative cells to heat, desiccation, antimicrobial compounds and radiation, and can remain dormant for long periods.

Biological, chemical or physical agents that kill bacteria, but not necessarily their endospores. Include formaldehyde, peracetic acid, hydrogen peroxide or activated carbon.

Peptides produced by specific bacteria that possess antibacterial activity. Both purified bacteriocins and bacteriocin-producing bacteria are used in the food industry, applications including inhibition of the growth of pathogens and spoilage organisms.

Extent to which a substance (e.g. a food) is contaminated with bacteria.

Scientific study of bacteria.

Viruses that infect bacteria. In the case of lytic phages, bacterial synthesis of DNA, RNA and proteins ceases following infection, and new phage constituents are synthesized using the host's transcription and translation apparatus. Following self-assembly of phages, host cells rupture, releasing several hundred new phage particles. Many phages, however, are lysogenic and integrate into the host cell DNA as prophages. These remain dormant and only undergo the lytic cycle under appropriate environmental conditions. Bacteriophage infection of starters causes significant losses in the manufacture of cheese and other fermented dairy products. Altered forms of bacteriophages are often used as DNA cloning vectors.

Resistance of bacteria to infection by bacteriophages. Resistance may be mediated by alteration of the cell wall or by various intracellular mechanisms, such as restriction modification systems. Several resistance mechanisms have been found to be plasmids-based and, potentially, can be introduced into bacteria in order to increase their resistance to infection.

Chemical agents that inhibit the growth and multiplication of bacteria. Includes several disinfectants, spices and antibiotics.

Genus of Gram negative, obligately an-aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria of the family Bacteroidaceae. Occur in the oral cavity and intestinal tract of humans and other animals. Some species are opportunistic pathogens.

High speed centrifugation process used to remove most bacterial endospores, yeasts and fungi from milk, thereby extending its shelf life. Used to produce milk with a low spore count for cheese production to prevent late blowing of hard cheese.

Genus of palms which includes Bactris gasipaes, also known as pupunha or peach palm, a species utilized for its edible fruits and palm hearts.

Fruits similar to mangosteens produced by Platonia insignis or P. esculenta, trees growing in the Amazonian forests of South America. Yellow, with a leathery shell enclosing creamy white flesh. Flesh is eaten fresh or canned, or used in manufacture of products such as purees, jams, ice cream, fruit juices and liqueurs.

Thick-shelled fruits of Aegle marmelos, a rutaceous tree native to India. The citrus-like fruits are rich in vitamin C, with slight astringency, and are consumed fresh or processed into products such as juices and jams. Fresh fruits have a yellow pulp, which turns reddish brown when dried. Particularly prized for their medicinal properties, especially as a treatment for dysentery. Also known as Bengal quinces or Indian quinces.

Packaging consisting of a flexible inner bag, which closely fits inside a box. The product is contained in the inner bag, which acts to keep out atmospheric oxygen. The rigid outer box protects the contents. Used widely for breakfast cereals and also for storing and dispensing wines.

Cane sugar processing waste that is composed of unextracted sugar and the remains of the sugar cane after milling. Used as a fuel source, in feeds, as a substrate for microbial fermentation and for paper and board manufacture. Also called sugar cane bagasse and megass.

Yeasts-leavened rolls with a hole in the middle, characterized by a glazed crust and a tough chewy texture. Made by dropping into boiling water briefly before baking.

Packing of substances, such as foods, into bags.

Fermented salted fish paste originating from the Philippines; usually made from an anchovy-like fish called dilis (Stolephorus indicus) or from young herring.

Containers with a single opening that are used for storing or carrying items. Made from a variety of flexible materials. Bags for food use are usually made of paper or plastics. The term is also used for small perforated paper sacks in which tea leaves or coffee grounds are placed and which are used to make small quantities of tea or coffee beverages.

Small narrow loaves of crusty bread containing little or no shortening. Often used to make sandwiches.

Indian millet, Pennisetum typhoideum.

Haricot beans (usually navy beans) that have been baked and canned in tomato sauces. Other ingredients starches, water, sugar, salt and spices. A good source of proteins and dietary fibre.

Facilities in which bakery products are manufactured. Also refers to retail outlets in which bakery products are sold.

Alternative term for bakery products, especially those of a sweet nature, e.g. cakes.

Leavening agents (e.g. Saccharomyces cerevisiae) used in making bread and other bakery products. Available in compressed, liquid and dried forms.

Ingredients used in making bakery products with the aim of prolonging shelf life or improving the quality of the finished products. Inantifoaming agents, anticlude humectants, staling agents, crumb softeners and texture improvers.

Fillings used in bakery products, e.g. cakes and biscuits.

Pre-mixed dry formulations which usually require the addition of liquid ingredients to make batters or dough.

Products in which flour based components are major ingredients, and which are cooked by baking. Include biscuits or cookies, bread, cakes, doughnuts, scones and tortillas.

Cooking of foods in ovens by surrounding with dry heat. The temperature of the oven is varied depending on the type of food that is to be cooked.

Enclosed chambers or compartments in which foods are cooked or heated by application of dry heat (baking).

Bakery additives comprising mixtures of sodium bicarbonate, starch and one or more acidic substance (e.g. cream of tartar). When moistened and heated, they act as raising agents by generating carbon dioxide, bubbles of which have a leavening effect.

Characteristics of cereals, bakery additives, flour or dough associated with their suitability for use in baking.

Extent to which a flour is able to produce a well leavened bread which has optimal texture and an even distribution of air pockets formed during fermentation, or good quality bakery products.

Middle Eastern unleavened sourdough flat bread, especially popular in Egypt.

Alternative term for bitter gourds.

Richly-flavoured dark vinegar produced in Modena, Northern Italy, by slow ageing of grape juices in wooden casks. Frequently used in modified include salad dressings and marinades.

Alternative term for bambara groundnuts.

Fruits of Voandzeia subterranea (syn. Vigna subterranea), also known as bambara beans. Grown extensively in the tropics, particularly Africa. Seeds are rich in starch and proteins, but low in minerals and contain only about half the oil content of true groundnuts (peanuts). Can be eaten fresh, boiled or roasted, or ground into meal to make porridge or bean cakes. Immature seeds are sweeter and easier to cook than mature, hard seeds.

Tall tree-like plants belonging to the grass family and characterized by hollow woody stems and edible young bamboo shoots. Of great economic importance in many areas. Species utilized for bamboo shoots include those belonging to the Bambussa, Phyllostachys and Dendrocalamus genera.

Emerging ivory-coloured shoots of several species of bamboo. These include Bambusa oldhamii, Dendrocalamus latiflorus and Phyllostachys edulis. An important component of Oriental cuisine, bamboo shoots are available fresh or canned and have a crispy texture. Bitter-tasting shoots require precooking due to the presence of cyanogenic glucosides.

Common name for the plant Lagerstroemia speciosa, the leaves of which are extracted to make banaba tea which is drunk as a herb tea, principally in the Philippines and Japan. Banaba leaf extracts also have blood sugar lowering activity, making them useful in treating diabetes mellitus and as major components in weight reduction products.

Aqueous extract prepared from the leaves of the banaba tree (Lagerstroemia speciosa) which is drunk as a herb tea, principally in the Philippines and Japan. Claimed to have many beneficial properties for health, including insulin-like activity.

Fruit juices extracted from bananas (Musa spp.).

Thick outer skin of bananas, which helps protect the fruit and whose colour provides a good indication of ripeness. Occasionally incorporated into jams.

Banana flesh or a preparation made from it by mashing. Used as the starting material for manufacture of various products, including banana milkshakes, fruit juices and infant foods.

Fruits produced by large tropical plants of the genus Musa. Wild fruits contain seeds and are in-edible, whereas edible cultivars are seedless (sterile) hybrids, and a good source of carbohydrates and vitamin A. Yellow dessert bananas are relatively high in sugar and are consumed fresh, whereas starchier plantains (green bananas) are used like a vegetable in cooking. Bananas are also widely used in foods such as fruit purees, fruit juices and bakery products.

Traditional Scottish flat bread or cakes made usually from barley flour or oatmeal. Cooked on a griddle and eaten plain or flavoured, with breakfast or evening meals.

Alternative term for the herbicide dicamba.

Common name for Adansonia digitata, a giant tree of the Bombacaceae family, used as a source of foods in many parts of Africa. Baobab fruits are similar in appearance to gourds and yield an edible pulp known as monkey bread, which is used in foods and beverages. Leaves are also edible and can be made into soups or stews, while seeds are ground to produce a meal (frequently mixed with millet) or used for production of baobab oils. Mixtures of milk and baobab fruit juices are popular beverages in some areas.

Oils produced from the gourd-like fruit of large trees of tropical Africa which belong to the genus Adansonia.

Machine-readable codes which contain product specific information. Bar codes are formed by patterns of parallel lines of varying thickness with spaces of varying length between them. Information is usually read from bar codes using light pens or laser scanners. Standard international codes are used. Benefits of using bar codes include: rapid and efficient data capture; improved product traceability; the possibility of automated product storage; improved control of product storage and distribution; time and costs savings; and improved customer service. Consumer unit bar codes, which encode fixed information, are used on primary packaging of products intended for sale directly to consumers at retail outlets. Traded unit bar codes, which include fixed as well as supplementary product information (e.g. product weight, batch number and time of production), are often compulsory within product supply chains. Transport unit bar codes used to label pallets and encode shipping containers are used to track pallets through supply chains.

Fruits from Malpighia glabra (syn. Malpighia emarginata), a large shrub native to the West Indies and South America. Also known as acerola or West Indian cherry. The bright red stone fruits are about the size of cherries and can be eaten fresh or processed into products such as jams and preserves. Fruits are the richest known natural source of vitamin C and represent an important commercial source of the vitamin.

Fruit juices extracted from Barbados cherries (Malphigia punicifolia). A rich source of vitamin C.

Meat and other foods cooked out of doors on a barbecue (originally a revolving spit over an open fire, nowadays more likely to be a wire grid placed over hot charcoals or a gas fire source). Popular barbecued foods include sausages, burgers and fish or meat steaks.

Alternative term for prickly pears.

General name used for drugs that act on the central nervous system to produce a sedative effect or induce anaesthesia; used to reduce stress in farm animals, particularly prior to and during transportation. High levels of active residues in edible tissues form a potential hazard to consumers. Examples include azaperone, nembutal and propiopromazine.

Edible grain from Hordeum vulgare used as a cereal and livestock feed and in malt production. Contains little gluten, and so is unsuitable for breadmaking. Most popular form is pearl barley in which the outer husk and part of the bran layer are removed by polishing. Provides a source of vitamins (e.g. niacin, folates) and minerals (e.g. zinc, copper, iron).

Ground hulled barley used to make unleavened bread and porridge.

Malt prepared from special malting barley cv; mainly used in brewing. Barley malt is the main malt type used in brewing worldwide.

Starch isolated from barley.

Pelagic predatory marine fish species (Sphyraena spp.); widely distributed in warmer regions of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Flesh is firm in texture with moderate fat content. Marketed fresh and as a salted or dried product.

Fish species (Lates calcarifer) of considerable economic importance; found in coastal waters, estuaries and lagoons in the southwest Pacific region. Sold in fresh and frozen form and consumed steamed, pan-fried, grilled and baked. Cultured in Thailand, Indonesia and Australia and can reach 1500- 3000 g in one year in ponds under optimum conditions.

Cylindrical containers for liquids and dry materials. Traditionally made of wooden staves held together by metal hoops, but may also be made of cheaper and/or more durable materials, such as metal or plastics. Oak barrels are used for the ageing of wines and spirits; constituents of the wood (e.g. tannins, lignin and fragments, carbohydrates, acids and esters, volatile phenols, oak lactones, pyrazines, furfural and norisoprenoids) have major effects on flavour of wines and spirits. Barrels are also used as measures for liquids, e.g. beer and oils, based on the capacity of standard barrels. Also known as casks or kegs.

Bottom dwelling fish (Platycephalus indicus) found in coastal waters and estuaries in South Pacific and Indian Ocean regions; also occurs in the eastern Mediterranean, where it was recently introduced. A valued food fish that is normally marketed fresh and is cultured commercially in Japan.

Biological classification for a large group of fungi, in which spores are produced in the basidia. Contains many types of edible fungi, including Agaricus mushrooms, but not truffles, which belong to the Ascomycetes group.

Herb obtained from the genus Ocimum. The main varieties used in cooking are sweet basil (O. basilicum) and bush basil (O. minimum). Flavour of the fresh leaves has been likened to a blend of liquorice and cloves, while dried leaves are more lemony and less pungent. Much used in Italian cuisine (particularly tomato-based dishes) and a key ingredient of pesto.

Perforated containers used to hold or carry food. Made from interwoven strips of wood (e.g. bamboo), twigs, wire, or other lightweight flexible materials. The open structure of baskets allows ventilation of the product. Compared with solid containers, the increased flow of air allows greater cooling rates.

Aromatic long grain variety of rice from India.

Name given to a variety of marine fish and freshwater fish. In Europe, the name particularly refers to a marine fish species (Dicentrarchus labrax) widely distributed in eastern Atlantic regions from North Africa up to Norway. Enters coastal waters and river mouths in summer, but migrates offshore in colder weather and occurs in deep water during winter. A highly valued food fish; usually marketed fresh or smoked. Also known as European sea bass.

Marine flatfish species (Paralicthys olivaceus) from the flounder family (Paralicthyidae), which occurs in the western Pacific Ocean. Highly prized as a food fish in Japan. Usually marketed fresh. Also known as hirame and Japanese flounders.

Thin liquid mixtures of pouring consistency made from flour, milk and eggs. May be used as coatings for foods such as fish prior to frying, or cooked on their own to make products such as pancakes, waffles and Yorkshire puddings.

Moist almond sponge cakes, often baked in the shape of a pyramid.

Bacteriocins produced by Lactobacillus spp.

Cold desserts made with eggs, gelatin and whipped cream. Also known as Bavarian cream.

Alternative term for the fungicide carbendazim.

Alternative term for laurel (Laurus nobilis), a small, evergreen tree. May also refer to bay leaves, the herbs obtained from this tree.

Aromatic leaves obtained from the laurel tree, Laurus nobilis. Used as a herb to flavour to stews, sauces and many other foods. Generally added whole and removed before serving.

Alternative term for the insecticide quinalphos.

Alternative term for the insecticide fenthion.

Genus of Gram negative, aerobic bacteria. Occur in soil, sewage and in both fresh and marine waters. Characteristically intracellular parasites of other Gram negative bacteria, reproducing between the cell wall and plasma membrane of the bacterium and ultimately killing it.

Seeds produced by Lathyrus maritimus or L. japonicus, leguminous plants growing particularly along the shores of Arctic and sub-Arctic regions, but also in coastal areas of Europe and Asia. New stalks may be cooked by stir frying, steaming or boiling. After the plant has flowered, young pods are cooked and eaten like snow peas. These young pods are rich in vitamin B complex, β-carotene and proteins. Also known as sea peas and seaside peas.

Tall, wide-mouthed plastics or glass containers, often with a pointed lip for pouring. Also used to describe simple drinking vessels without handles commonly made from clays or plastics.

Coagulated product obtained from beans. Used particularly with reference to soy curd (tofu).

Sweet bean pastes, such as ann, which form the basis of many Japanese confectionery products.

Pastes prepared from beans such as soybeans, e.g. miso or ann.

Young shoots of germinated beans, particularly mung beans. Rich in vitamins and minerals and a common ingredient in salads and Oriental dishes.

Seeds which grow in pods produced by plants such as Phaseolus species. Some beans are eaten fresh, frozen or canned, but most are dried to form a long-life staple food in many parts of the world. Beans are typically kidney-shaped and a good, inexpensive source of proteins, fibre and folates. The term is also commonly applied to seeds which resemble beans, such as coffee beans and cocoa beans.

Meat from bears. In comparison with beef, it has high protein and low fat contents. Bear steaks can be cooked like beef, but the meat may be tough so it is often marinated for a couple of days in oil and wine or vinegar. In some countries, such as Thailand, wild bear meat may be consumed raw or partially cooked, and is consequently a source of trichinosis.

Berries produced by the bush Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, which grows wild in northern and Arctic areas of Europe, Asia and North America. Similar in size to currants, with a tough skin and mealy white pulp containing hard seeds. Eaten raw as an emergency food or used as an extender with other berries in bakery products such as fruit pies. Extracts of leaves from the bush have antioxidative activity, making them of interest in production of natural antioxidants for use in foods.

Members of the widespread mammalian family Ursidae; there are several species including Asiatic black bears (Selenarctos thibetanus), polar bears (Thalarctos maritimus) and grizzly bears (Ursus arc-tos). Bears are hunted for their skins and for bear meat.

Vigorous stirring of cooking ingredients, usually in a circular motion with the intention of incorporating air.

Insecticidal and antimicrobial hexadepsipeptide mycotoxin produced by several Fusarium strains. May be produced in Fusarium-infected cereals.

Name commonly given to edible sea cucumbers (Holothuroidae; Stichopus spp. and Cucumaria spp.); a popular delicacy in Japan, China and the Philippines. Marketed in gutted, boiled and dried forms.

Yellow oils derived from the kernels of Fagus sylvatica, which are rich in olein and contain stearin and palmitin. Used as a cooking oil and salad oil.

Meat from cattle, including bulls, calves, cows, steers and oxen. Quality is determined largely by breed, age and gender of the animal; it is also influenced by animal feeding, slaughtering technique and treatment of the meat post-slaughter. Tenderness and flavour are increased by hanging cattle carcasses (ageing/conditioning). Raw fresh beef is usually bright red in colour with creamy coloured marbling; however, meat from older cattle, particularly bulls, tends to be darker in colour. Composition varies with fat content and between different cuts, e.g. brisket, forerib, rump and silverside. Cuts which contain little connective tissues can be cooked by roasting, frying or grilling; however, tougher cuts should be cooked by stewing or braising, in order to soften the connective tissue. During the 1980s and 1990s, markets for beef have been affected negatively by consumer health concerns relating to high levels of saturated fats in red meat and to prion diseases, particularly bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). Alternative term for beef muscles, bovine muscles, bull muscles, calf meat, calf muscles, cattle muscles and cattle tissues.

Water-soluble extracts prepared from beef, used widely as flavourings. Preparation involves immersion of beef mince in boiling water to leach out the water-soluble extractives, and concentration. Direct extract can be produced by exhaustive extraction of beef; it contains a high concentration of gelatin. Beef extracts are rich nutritional sources of the vitamin B group; they can be formulated for use as spreads for bread, as flavourings, and, when mixed with water, as beverages. Beef extracts can also be used in preparation of beef tea, an extract of stewing beef that may be used as a food for invalids.

Meat products prepared primarily from beef mince, but also containing pork mince or pork sausagemeat. Other ingredients may include onions, tomato purees, garlic, white bread, milk, herbs, eggs and seasonings. The ingredients are mixed before baking in a loaf tin. Once cold, beef loaf can be cut into firm slices. Generally, it is served cold.

Meat mince prepared from beef which is available in several grades; these primarily relate to the percentage of fat in the mince. For example, beef mince may be graded as: extra lean; lean, which has good flavour but does not shrink excessively on cooking; or regular, which is usually made from lower cost cuts of beef. Also known as ground beef or minced beef.

Alternative term for beef.

Meat patties prepared from beef mince. They include hamburgers.

Joints of beef which are intended for cooking or have been cooked by roasting.

Sausages made primarily from beef. They may include pork, but the proportion of this is less than that of beef.

Thick slices of high-quality beef taken from the hindquarters of cattle carcasses, including sirloin, porterhouse, T-bone, fillet and rump steaks. They are usually cooked by grilling or frying.

Round, flat cakes of beef mince, cooked by grilling or frying. Beefburgers are usually prepared from beef mince with a high content of fat. They are commonly eaten in bread rolls, served with lettuce, slices of onion and tomato ketchups.

Alcoholic beverages manufactured by alcoholic fermentation of worts using either top or bottom fermenting brewers yeasts. The malt is commonly barley malt, but other malt types, including wheat malt or sorghum malt may be used. Non-malted cereals or other brewing adjuncts may be used in combination with the malt. Beer is commonly, but not always, flavoured with hops.

Alternative term for brewing.

Alternative term for brewing.

Insects of the order Hymenoptera that are of commercial importance due to the ability of some species to produce beeswax, honeys and royal jelly. Some bee species of Halictidae or Apidae families have evolved to living in social groups or colonies. One of these species, the honeybee (Apis mellifera), produces a bee colony or comb, constructed of hexagonal cells composed of beeswax, in which to store food (honeys), and house insect eggs and larvae and the reproducing female bee or queen. Colonies of domestic honeybees also produce honeys which are collected as nectar and stored within the combs. Bees also have an important role in pollination of plants, including fruit trees.

Yellow-coloured substance secreted by bees to make honeycombs. Solid, but easily moulded when warm. Consists of esters, cerotic acid and hydrocarbons. Used to make edible wax coatings for foods and edible films. Aqueous extracts may be used as flavourings.

Molasses produced as a by-product of beet sugar refining. Beet molasses commonly contain approximately 60% sucrose. Also called beet sugar molasses.

Sucrose purified from roots of sugar beets (Beta vulgaris). Stages of beet sugar manufacture include: cleaning and cutting of roots; hot water extraction of sugars; purification of beet sugar juices by precipitation of impurities with limephosphoric acid or lime-CO2 treatments; filtration to remove solids; concentration of the purified beet sugar juices; and crystallization of the pure beet sugar. Commercially available beet sugar comprises •99.80% sucrose and <0.05% moisture content.

Factories that contain processing lines equipped for refining of sugar from sugar beets (Beta vulgaris). Factories also usually contain sugar storage and packaging facilities.

Aqueous solutions of beet sugar produced during processing of roots of sugar beets. Raw juices are solutions produced by direct hot water extraction of the roots and contain beet sugar and impurities. Thin juices are purified beet sugar solutions and thick juices are formed by concentration of the thin juices.

Alternative term for beet molasses.

Highly concentrated aqueous solutions of beet sugar produced by evaporation of purified beet sugar juices (thin beet sugar juices).

Members of the large insect order Coleoptera, characterized by thickened shell-like forewings and membranous hind wings. Tribolium castaneum and Sitophilus oryzae are common insect pests of stored grain. Larvae of some species may be consumed as insect foods.

Juices extracted from beetroots (bulbous roots of Beta vulgaris). Consumed on their own or mixed with other vegetable juices, e.g. carrot juices, or fruit juices. Also drunk after fermentation. Useful as natural colorants due to the presence of the red pigment betanin. High contents of nitrates and nitrites, which might limit this application, can be removed by incubation with denitrifying microorganisms.

Bulbous crimson red roots of Beta vulgaris, grown widely in Europe and America. Consumed as a boiled vegetable, pickled, or used as the basis for borshch. The red pigmentation of the root is due to the presence to betanin.

Fleshy roots produced by plants of the genus Beta, such as sugar beets, used as a source of sugar, and beetroots, which are eaten as a vegetable.

Alterations in human behaviour that can result from dietary constituents. Examples include modulation of mood, cravings and cognitive performance.

Synonym for docosanoic acid. One of the constituent fatty acids of the lipids fraction in various food plants. A low uptake from the digestive tract makes it potentially useful in preparation of low-calorie natural fat products.

Large, sweet-tasting fruits of Capsicum annuum with bell shaped pods that can vary in colour from green and white through to shades of red, orange, yellow and purple. One of the most popular types of sweet peppers; many different cultivars are available, most of which are non pungent. Can be eaten raw in salads or added to a variety of cooked dishes.

Commercial cereal-based product composed of wheat, wheat protein concentrate, defatted soy meal, refined soybean oils, vitamins and minerals. Used in weaning foods in Nigeria.

Freshwater fish species (Huso huso); the largest member of the sturgeon family (Acipenseridae); also known as great sturgeon. Found in the basins of the Black and Caspian seas in Europe. Highly valued and sought after, mainly for its roe (caviar); flesh is also sold fresh, smoked and frozen. Bester, a hybrid of female beluga and male sterlet (Acipenser ruthenus), has been successfully cultured for production of high quality caviar.

Species of whales (Delphinapterus leucas) widely distributed in the Arctic Ocean, which is still hunted on a subsistence level by indigenous people of Canada and Alaska for whale meat, blubber and other raw materials. Also known as white whales.

Indian name for chick peas.

Alternative term for bael fruit.

Alternative term for the fungicide benomyl.

Systemic fungicide used for control of a wide range of fungal diseases of fruits, vegetables and cereals. Example uses include: control of Botrytis in vegetables; control of Verticillium wilt in tomatoes; and control of snow mould in wheat. Often used in conjunction with other pesticides. Degradation in plants and animals is relatively slow. Classified by WHO as slightly toxic (WHO III).

Selective contact herbicide used for control of certain weeds in cereal and vegetable crops. Rapidly metabolized to various derivatives in plants and animals and degrades rapidly in soils. Classified by WHO as slightly toxic (WHO III).

Type of absorbent clay (a colloidal hydrated aluminium silicate) formed by the breakdown of volcanic ash that has the ability to absorb water with an increase in volume. Bentonite uses in the food industry include fining agents for winemaking, clarifiers for fruit juices and vegetable oils, bakery additives to reduce staling, stabilizers and filter aids.

Aromatic aldehyde which is one of the flavour compounds in a wide range of foods.

Aromatic hydrocarbon which exists as a colourless liquid with a sweet odour and which can evaporate into the air and dissolve in water. Widely used in industry in the manufacture of chemicals and a range of substances including plastics, rubber, dyes, detergents, drugs and pesticides. Carcinogenic in humans at high doses. Present as a pollutant of air from a variety of sources, and has also been found as a contaminant in drinking water, mineral waters and soft drinks. Contamination of carbon dioxide used in processing can lead to the presence of benzene in carbonated beverages.

Toxic and carcinogenic aromatic amine which may occur as a contaminant in foods, and especially some colorants. Benzidine and its derivatives are also used as reagents in food analyses.

One of a group of pesticides and anthelmintics, residues of which may occur as contaminants in foods.

Salts of benzoic acid, used as antimicrobial preservatives in foods.

Organic acid which, along with its salts, is used in antimicrobial preservatives for a wide range of foods.

Carcinogenic and mutagenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) fraction which occurs as a contaminant in foods.

Member of the heterocyclic compounds class of flavour compounds, occurring in a range of foods. May cause taints in some foods.

Aromatic alcohol which is a constituent of the flavour compounds and aroma compounds in various fruits and spices, and in plant-derived products such as alcoholic beverages.

One of the typical flavour compounds in vegetables and spices of the family Cruciferae; formed by hydrolysis of glucosinolates. May display cytotoxicity and anticarcinogenicity.

One of the plant growth regulators which may be used to improve ripening and quality of fruits. May also be used as a thinning agent in cultivation of fruits.

Alternative term for the antibiotic penicillin G.

Alternative term for jujubes.

Berries produced by Berberis vulgaris. Ripe fruits are edible, but unripe berries contain toxic alkaloids. Bright orange red when ripe with a tart flavour. Can be made into jellies, pickled, used as a garnish or made into spirits and liqueurs. Their juice is rich in vitamin C. Also known as barberries.

Essential oils obtained from the bergamot orange. Main use is in flavourings for Earl Grey tea. Also used in citrus flavourings for soft drinks and in some natural fruit flavourings, such as apricot. Contains bergapten, a skin sensitizer. Alternative term for bergamot oils.

Alternative term for bergamot essential oils.

Furocoumarin of the psoralens group of flavour compounds, characteristic of bergamot essential oils. Also occurs in celery and parsley.

Hard cheese made from unpasteurized cow milk in Switzerland, Austria and Germany. Traditionally made from milk of cows grazing mountain pastures. Similar to Emmental cheese. Alternative spelling is bergkase cheese.

Name commonly applied to various small, juicy, stone-less fruits. Include strawberries, bilberries and loganberries. In a botanical sense, the term relates to fruits having a pulpy edible part containing one or more seeds, such as cranberries, grapes and bananas.

Fruit juices extracted from any of a range of berries, including: blackcurrant juices, cranberry juices, elder-berry juices, hawthorn juices, raspberry juices, redcurrant juices and strawberry juices.

Former name for the genus Leuconostoc.

Red/violet pigments of the betalains group, which occur naturally in red beets and other plant foods. Used as natural colorants in foods.

Soluble nitrogen compounds occurring in a range of foods, especially sugar beets, molasses and beet sugar factory wastes. May be included in flavour compounds, and have antioxidative activity.

Alternative term for betalains.

Class of pigments naturally occurring in fruits and vegetables, especially those derived from plants of the Caryophyllales family. Include red/violet betacyanins and yellow betaxanthin. May be used as food colorants.

Member of the betacyanins group of pigments, characteristic of red beets. May be used as natural colorants.

Yellow pigment of the betalains group.

Aromatic leaves of the Asian climbing plant, betel vine (Piper betle). Used to wrap betel nuts for the ritual chewing of betel quid. Also used as an edible wrapping for food in some Asian countries.

Acorn-shaped seeds of the betel palm, Areca catechu, also known as areca nuts. Seeds are used medicinally as an antihelminthic, but are most commonly used for the ritual chewing of betel quid, a popular masticatory, comprising betel nuts, slaked lime and spices wrapped in betel leaves (Piper betle). Chewing of this preparation is widespread throughout Asia, and causes mild stimulation due to the presence of alkaloids such as arecoline. Chewing of betel quid is associated with an increased risk of oral cancer.

Types of blood sausages derived from pork and swine offal (including intestine and brain), and encased in swine intestines. A regional speciality in Germany.

Concentrated solutions or syrups which may be diluted to prepare beverages, e.g. soft drinks.

Mixtures of ingredients which may be dissolved to prepare beverages, e.g. soft drinks.

Beverage mixes in the form of powders, to be dissolved in water or other liquids prior to dispensing or consumption.

Liquids intended for drinking. Types include alcoholic beverages, soft drinks, teas, coffee, cocoa beverages, dairy beverages, bilberry juices, health beverages, fruit beverages, soy beverages and drinking water.

Factories in which beverages are manufactured or processed.

Turkish semi-soft cheese made from raw ewe milk. Usually made with vegetable ren-nets and stored in brines for at least 6 months before consumption. Used in salads, pastries and many local dishes. Similar to feta cheese.

Abbreviation for butylated hydroxyanisole.

Abbreviation for benzene hexachloride. Alternative term for the insecticide HCH.

Abbreviation for butylated hydroxytoluene.

Ham sausages containing coarsely cut pieces of meat, originally made in Germany. Top quality bierschinken contains >60% coarsely cut, cured, tendon-free meat, with good cohesion in 1-mm thick slices. Medium quality bierschinken contains •50% coarsely cut meat, including pieces of meat which vary in size from 2-cm-sided cubes to egg-sized pieces.

Chunky, tubular, dark red coloured, cooked German sausages. They are prepared from beef and pork; the meat is chopped and blended, and seasonings, such as garlic, are added. The sausages are cooked at high temperature and smoked. They are usually sliced and served cold in sandwiches. Alternative term for beerwurst or beer salami.

Genus of Gram positive, anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria of the family Actinomycetacea. Occur among the normal flora of the urogenital and gastrointestinal tracts. Bifidobacterium bifidum may be incorporated in some starters used for the manufacture of fermented dairy products.

Dietary constituents, particularly a component of human milk, that promote growth of Bifidobacterium in the gastrointestinal tract. This activity is demonstrated by certain prebiotic oligosaccharides, lactulose and derivatives of glycoproteins.

Fermented milk containing Bifidobacterium species that make the product beneficial for intestinal health.

Marine fish species (Lutjanus lutjanus or L. lineolatus) belonging to the family Lutjanidae (snappers) and of high commercial importance. Widely distributed across the Pacific ocean. Snapper are normally marketed fresh.

Marine fish species (Thunnus obesus) from the tuna family. Found in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans but absent in the Mediterranean. Flesh from this tuna species is highly prized; used for sashimi production in Japan. Marketed mainly canned or frozen but also sold fresh.

Freshwater fish species (Aristichthys nobilis) belonging to the carp family (Cyprinidae) and of high commercial importance. Widely distributed throughout the world. Marketed fresh and frozen.

Dark blue berries produced by the European shrub Vaccinium myrtillus. Also known as whortleberries and similar in flavour to American blueberries. Rich in vitamin C, they can be eaten raw or used in products such as pies, jams, jellies and fruit wines.

Fruit juices extracted from bilberries (Vaccinium myrtilis).

Steroidal acids present in bile, which play an important role in digestion and absorption of fats. Cholic acid and chenodeoxycholic acids (primary bile acids) are produced by the liver from cholesterol and are secreted as glycoand tauroconjugates into bile. On secretion of bile into the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract, bile salts bind colipase, allowing lipolysis of triglycerides, and also participate in formation of micelles facilitating absorption of lipids. Dehydroxylation of primary bile acids by intestinal bacteria generates secondary bile acids (deoxycholic and lithocholic acids). Bile acids can be reabsorbed as part of the enterohepatic circulation.

Alternative term for choloylglycine hydrolases.

Alkaline salts present in bile involved in emulsification of fats in the intestine. Include sodium glycocholate and sodium taurocholate.

Traditional South African intermediate moisture meat product prepared from meat of domestic animals or game, but mainly from beef. Meat is cut into strips, trimmed and dipped in a solution of salt and sometimes preservatives and spices prior to drying to the desired moisture content. The dried product may also be smoked. Consumed by chewing the strips or by grating to a powder which can be spread on bread.

Alternative term for binding agents.

Substances used to hold ingredient mixtures together, providing adhesion, solidification and correct consistency. For example, carrageenans and soy proteins can be used to bind free moisture and improve texture and juiciness in reduced fat or restructured meat products. Other applications for binding agents include chewing gums, extruded foods and confectionery.

Ability of one substance to attach to another.

Large containers used for storing specified substances or containers used for depositing rubbish. Also used to describe partitioned stands for storing bottles of wines.

Term used to describe biotechnologically derived foods or functional foods.

Substances which display biological activity, e.g. immunomodulation, opioid activity, antihypertensive activity or hypolipaemic activity, upon ingestion. Found in a range of foods, and are of interest to the functional foods sector. Include bioactive peptides (occur widely in dairy products), many vitamins and fatty acids, flavonoids and phytosterols.

Peptides produced from plant or animal proteins, which display biological activity (e.g. opioid, immunostimulatory or antihypertensive activity), and are of interest to the functional foods sector. Milk proteins are a particularly rich source of bioactive peptides, such as casein phosphopeptides and β-casomorphins. Peptides that inhibit activity of peptidyl-dipeptidase A are found in a number of food sources and have potential use as antihypertensive functional foods ingredients.

Technique for measuring the biological activity of a substance by testing its effects in living material such as a cell culture.

Extent to which a dietary component can be absorbed and utilized by the target tissue of the body. Nutrients with low bioavailability may be in a form that is poorly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract (e.g. lysine combined with reducing sugars as a results of the Maillard reaction, minerals in the presence of antinutritional factors such as phytates) or may be biologically inactive once absorbed.

Substances that catalyse biochemical processes in living organisms. The most well known examples are enzymes, although RNA may also fulfil this function.

Alternative term for biological oxygen demand.

Science of the chemistry of living organisms.

Chemical agents, such as pesticides, herbicides and fungicides, that are toxic or lethal to living organisms.

Deliberate exploitation by humans of one species of organism to eliminate or control another. Commonly involves introduction into the environment of parasites, insects or pathogens which can infect and kill or disable particular insect pests or weeds of crop plants. Also known as biological control.

Utilize the catalytic activity of living organisms to convert a defined substrate to a defined product in a process involving several reactions/steps. The term is often used interchangeably with biotransformations. Advantages include the ability to operate under mild conditions, the ability to produce specific enantiomers and the ability to carry out reactions not possible using conventional chemical synthesis. Bio-conversions differ considerably from fermentation, since in the latter, the products often bear no structural resemblance to the pool of compounds given to the microorganisms.

Ability of a substance to undergo biodegradation.

Degradation of a substance as a result of biological (usually microbial) activity, rendering it less noxious to the environment.

Deterioration (spoilage) of an object or material as a result of biological (usually microbial) activity. Biodeterioration of foods causes them to become less palatable and sometimes toxic, and can involve alterations in flavour, aroma, appearance or texture. The organisms involved are typically bacteria and fungi, and their activity is dependent on factors such as nutrients present, aw, pH, temperature and degree of aeration.

Films of microorganisms, usually embedded in extracellular polymers, which adhere to surfaces submerged in or subjected to aquatic environments. Frequently cause fouling of the surfaces of water pipes.

Flavonoids present in a wide range of plant foods, which have beneficial effects on health.

German yoghurt-like acidophilus milk usually made with starters containing Streptococcus thermophilus, Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifidobacterium bifidum.

A mixture of gases produced by anaerobic digestion of organic wastes, comprising mainly methane and carbon dioxide with traces of hydrogen, nitrogen and water vapour. Used as a fuel. Product of bioremediation of many types of food processing wastes.

Amines (e.g. histamine, tyramine, tryptamine, putrescine) synthesized by decarboxylation and hydroxylation of amino acids by microbial enzymes. Can cause allergic reactions. May be formed in cheese, wines, chocolate and fermented foods.

German yoghurt-like acidophilus milk usually made with starters containing Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus acidophilus.

Activity of compounds, generally organic in origin, within living organisms. For food-derived chemicals, this is generally a non-nutritional property, such as antimicrobial activity, antioxidative activity, immunomodulation, or other physiological effects.

Selectively permeable membranes containing mainly lipids and proteins that surround the cytoplasm in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Can also contain carbohydrates and sterols. The precise composition depends on the species and, in some cases, on growth conditions and age of the cells. The lipids (phospholipids and glycolipids) usually form a bilayer within which proteins are partly or wholly embedded, some spanning the entire width of the bilayer. Artificial biological membranes (liposomes) are often used to transport biological molecules.

Amount of dissolved oxygen required for microbial oxidation of biodegradable matter in an aquatic environment containing organic matter, such as sewage, water or milk. Gives an indication of contamination by microorganisms which take up oxygen for their metabolism. Also known as biochemical oxygen demand or by the abbreviation BOD.

Indication of the nutritional value of food proteins. Relative measure of the amount of absorbed proteins retained by the body, assuming no loss of protein nitrogen during digestion. Values are highest for egg proteins (0.9-1.0) and milk proteins (0.85), with meat proteins and fish proteins (0.7-0.8), cereal proteins (0.5-0.7) and gelatin (0) having lower values.

Science of the properties of living organisms and the interactions of these organisms with their environment.

Production of light as a product of biochemical reactions by organisms including bacteria, fungi, some fish and fireflies.

Biological indicators of exposure and response to a chemical, physical or biological agent. May be used to indicate the presence of that agent or the progress of a specific biological state, such as a disease.

Quantitative estimate of the total population of living organisms present in a given habitat, in terms of mass, volume, or energy.

Alternative term for chlortetracycline.

Polymers which occur in living organisms. Included in this group of macromolecules are polysaccharides, proteins and nucleic acids.

Reactors used for generating products using the synthetic or chemical conversion capacity of a biological system, such as enzyme reactions and fermentation. They can be fermenters, cell culture perfusion systems or enzyme bioreactors. For production of enzymes or proteins, recombinant microorganisms, such as bacteria, yeasts, fungi and plant cells, are usually chosen. Also used for bio-remediation of industrial effluents, such as food industry waste water.

Use of microorganisms and/or enzymes to reduce the pollution potential of industrial effluents, such as food industry waste water, converting them to less hazardous forms. Can also be used to generate biomass and biogas.

Biomolecular probes that can be used to measure a variety of parameters in biological systems by translating a biochemical interaction at the probe surface into a quantifiable physical signal. Immobilization of enzymes, antibodies, receptors, DNA, cells or organelles on the surface of a transducer forms the basis of various biosensors. Used widely in the food industry for measuring levels of various components in foods and beverages, detection of contamination and adulteration, and for monitoring and process control of fermentation processes, bioconversions and biotransformations.

Potent surface active agents produced by a variety of microorganisms, including Pseudomonas, Rhodococcus, Candida, Corynebacterium, Mycobacterium, Acinetobacter spp., Bacillus subtilis, Serratia and Thiobacillus spp. Low molecular weight biosurfactants are often glycolipids, and high molecular weight biosurfactants are generally either polyanionic heteropolysaccharides containing covalently-linked hydrophobic side chains or complexes containing both polysaccharides and proteins. Biosurfactants have a number of advantages over their chemical counterparts, such as biodegradability, effectiveness at extremes of temperature and pH, and lower toxicity. Biosurfactants are used in the food industry as emulsifiers and stabilizers.

Foods produced by means of biotechnology.

In its broadest sense, any industrial process in which microorganisms are used. More commonly used for those industrial processes in which genetic engineering techniques have been used to construct novel strains to improve their properties and produce new products.

Products produced by microorganisms in biotechnological processes.

A water-soluble nutrient that is involved in the physiological biosynthesis of fats and the utilization of carbon dioxide. Rich dietary sources include egg yolks, cattle livers and yeasts. Avidin, a protein present in raw egg whites, can act as a biotin antivitamin by binding biotin and reducing its bioavailability. Also known as vitamin H and coenzyme R.

Specific modification of a defined compound to a defined product with structural similarity through the use of biological catalysts (enzymes, or whole dead or resting microorganisms). Advantages are the same as those for bioconversions.

Fungicides which inhibit fungal sporulation; used primarily to control fungal growth on the surface of stored citrus fruits. Residues on fruits sometimes persist throughout the storage period. Classified by Environmental Protection Agency as slightly toxic (Environmental Protection Agency III). Also known as diphenyl.

Oilseeds produced by Brassica rapa or B. campestris.

Warm-blooded vertebrates in the class Aves that have wings and feathers and lay eggs.

Edible birds nests are nests made by swifts and swallows, especially species of the genus Collocalia, in which minor feathers are mixed with gelatinous strands of saliva. Used in traditional Chinese medicine and Chinese cuisine. Most commonly eaten in birds nest soups, but also used in other dishes. Nests are often relatively inaccessible, making them expensive and prone to fraud. Authenticity can be established by analysis of either the amino acids or the oligosaccharides of the glycoproteins.

The optical property of a substance, usually a crystal, in which a ray of light passing through the substance is separated into two plane-polarized rays (double refraction). The effect can occur when the velocity of light in the material is not equivalent in all directions, resulting in different refractive indices for light polarized in different planes.

Dough used to make biscuits.

Factories in which biscuits are manufactured.

Flour-based products that vary greatly in size, shape and texture, but are generally small, thin and short or crisp. Usually made with flour, butter or vegetable shortenings, sugar and sometimes a leavening agent; other ingredients, e.g. cocoa, chocolate chips, dried fruits, nuts, cheese or flavourings, are added according to the type of biscuits to be made. Usually eaten as snack foods, often with beverages. Can be eaten as part of a meal along with cheese. Called cookies in the USA, where the term biscuits refers to soft, scone-like products.

Humpbacked, shaggy coated members of the family Bovidae. There are two species: the North American bison (Bison bison); and the European bison (B. bonasus). Bison are reared on game farms for bison meat production, particularly in the USA and Canada.

Meat from bison. Bison meat is very lean and tender, and has a similar flavour to lean beef; it has no pronounced gamey flavour.

A Common isopropylidenediphenol, an intermediate used in production of epoxy, polycarboate and phenolic resins. Polycarbonates, plastics used in a wide range of products including microwave cookware and food containers, are formed by reaction of bisphenol A with phosgene. Bisphenol A is also used in coatings for cans. There are concerns over the possibility of migration of bisphenol A monomers from cans or containers into foods as intake might have endocrine disrupting effects.

Constituent of epoxy resin coatings used in food cans or food storage containers. Residues may migrate into the foods in the cans or containers. Often abbreviated to BADGE.

Hydrogen sulfite salts used in antimicrobial preservatives and antioxidants in foods and beverages.

Bitter compounds in hops, specifically α-acids (humulones) and β-acids (lupulones).

Oils rich in oleic acid derived from seeds of bitter almonds. Contain benzaldehyde and hydrocyanic acid; the latter compound, which is toxic, is removed during extraction. Used in flavourings.

Common name for nuts produced by Prunus dulcis (syn. P. amygdalus). Too bitter for fresh consumption and also contain highly toxic hydrocyanic acid, or hydrogen cyanide. Cultivated mainly for manufacture of bitter almond oils (principal component benzaldehyde), which are used as flavourings following removal of the hydrocyanic acid.

Compounds with a bitter taste; these may be used as flavourings in foods or beverages, e.g. hops bitter acids in beer, or quinine in soft drinks.

Ovoid orange-yellow fruits from the tropical climbing plant Momordica charantia. Fruits are also known as balsam pears and have a characteristic bitter taste, which can be minimized by salt-water treatment, and by selecting young fruits. Bitter gourds can be eaten raw in salads, cooked as a vegetable or used in pickles and curries. Contents of vitamins, minerals and essential amino acids are similar or superior to those of other Cucurbitaceae. Young shoots can also be eaten as a substitute for spinach.

Peptides, formed during enzymic hydrolysis of proteins, which have a bitter taste and may impair the sensory quality of the food. Bitter pep-name for 4,4ƍ- tides derived from casein may be a particular problem in cheesemaking. Bitter peptides may also cause problems in soy products and protein hydrolysates. Treatment with peptidases may eliminate quality problems attributable to bitter peptides.

Physiological disorder of apples associated with low calcium concentrations in the fruit.

Alternative term for bitter compounds.

Flavour produced by bitter compounds such as caffeine and other alkaloids, often at low thresholds.

Italian cheese made on an artisanal scale from cow milk or cow milk mixed with not more than 10% goat milk. Granted Denomination of Origin status. Rind has a characteristic straw-yellow colour which intensifies with ripening. Texture and flavour vary with stage of ageing, young cheese being soft with a sweet and slightly aromatic flavour, while older cheese acquires a piquant flavour and is firmer. Used as an ingredient in local cooked dishes and salads.

Molluscs from class Bivalvia having paired shells (valves) usually connected by a hinge that permits the valves to open and close. The four major groups of bivalve are clams, oysters, scallops and mussels. Most bivalves inhabit marine waters; many species are caught or cultured for human consumption.

Fat-soluble carotenoid obtained from the seeds of Bixa orellena. The main colouring component of annatto, and also used as a colorant in its own right, e.g. in margarines, salad dressings and baked goods.

Small mild, earthy-flavoured beans. Usually sold dried. One on the many varieties of common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), they are jet black in colour with a creamy flesh. Widely consumed in Latin America and the Caribbean, e.g. in black bean soups. These are not the same as the black bean used in Oriental cuisine, which are black soybeans.

Dark seeds of Nigella sativa, used as spices in foods such as curries, pickles, bread and cheese, in a similar manner to cumin. Occasionally known as nigella or black onion seeds. The term is sometimes used to refer to dark varieties of true cumin.

Common name for Vigna mungo (syn. Phaseolus mungo) also known as urd beans or munggo. A tropical pulse widely consumed in India and South East Asia. Many different cultivars, typically with a green or brown coloured seed coat. Consumed in split, boiled or roasted forms or processed into dhal for use in fermented foods such as idli. Black gram sprouts are popular in Asia. Green pods can be boiled and used as a vegetable.

Common name for Solanum nigrum. Generally regarded as a nuisance plant, but consumed as a leafy vegetable in parts of Kenya and other parts of Africa and Asia. Ripe berries are also eaten in some regions. Plants and their fruits contain solanaceous glycoalkaloids and can have toxic effects.

Term used for table olives that have either been harvested when fully ripe (also known as untreated or natural black olives), or which have been harvested at an unripe stage, darkened by oxidation and treated with alkalies to remove bitterness.

Pepper made from the unripe green berries (peppercorns) of Piper nigrum, which are sun dried to give a black, wrinkled appearance, and then ground to a fine powder. Flavour is more aromatic and pungent than that of white pepper.

Large cooked blood sausages with a compact texture, prepared from swine blood, suet, breadcrumbs and oatmeal. They are almost black in colour. Usually they are sold precooked, but are often reheated by sauteing before serving.

Cultivars of rice (Oryza sativa) containing anthocyanins which give a characteristic dark purple coloration to the grains. The pigments may be extracted and used as natural colorants.

Root crop from Scorzonera hispanica, a member of the Compositae family. The parsnipshaped, black-skinned root is a source of inulin and is consumed as a boiled vegetable or used in coffee substitutes. Also known as scorzonera or black oyster plant. Salsify (Tragopogon porrifolius) is a similar white rooted plant.

Euryhaline fish species (Clupeonella cultriventris) from the herring family (Clupidae) found in the Black Sea (northwestern parts), Sea of Azov and Caspian Sea in eastern Europe; also known as kilka. Processed and marketed in similar ways to anchovy.

Soybeans that have been fermented and preserved by salting. Blackish in colour and used for the preparation of black bean sauces and meju.

Alternative spelling for blackspot.

Tea prepared from Camellia sinensis leaves which have undergone a fermentation stage in which changes in phenols and flavour compounds occur.

Common name for the pungent edible fruiting bodies of Tuber melanosporum. Sensory properties are largely due to the presence of organic sulfur compounds, and vary according to geographical origin (found mainly in Spain, France and Italy). Black truffles from the Perigord region of France are particularly prized. Certain other species such as T. indicum, T. himalayense and T. brumale share similar morphological characteristics making identification difficult.

Large, purple or black glossy berries from Rubus fruticosus and certain other Rubus species (wild and cultivated). Eaten raw or used in jams, pies, vinegar and wines. Also known as brambleberries. Many similarities to dewberries.

Fruit juices extracted from blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum). Rich in vitamin C. Generally diluted or blended with other fruit juices before consumption.

Small, purple/black berries produced by Ribes nigrum, mainly grown and consumed in France, the UK and Germany. Eaten fresh or cooked, or used for manufacture of blackcurrant juices or blackcurrant-based liqueurs such as cassis.

Variety of cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata).

Disease of plants presenting as black blotches, loss of leaves and rotting, resulting from either bacterial or fungal infections. Also refers to the result of mechanical injury to plant foods, such as potatoes, during handling that is characterized by black patches.

Edible offal from animals. Bladders are hollow non-fiberized collagen-containing muscular organs. Dried urinary bladders, such as cattle bladders, are used as sausage casings. In some cultures, consumption of raw gall bladders from certain species of fish is believed to improve health; however, there are reports of acute hepatitis and renal failure associated with this practice. Swim bladders in fish have a high collagen content, and in some countries are used to produce foods.

Genus of fungi of the class Zygomycetes. Occur as saprotrophs on decaying vegetable matter, soil or dung, or as parasites or pathogens of plants and animals.

Plunging of foods (particularly vegetables and fruits) firstly into boiling water for a brief period, and then into cold water to stop the cooking process. Blanching is used to firm the flesh and to heighten and set colour and flavour (e.g. of vegetables before freezing), and to loosen peel prior to peeling (e.g. of peaches and tomatoes). Inactivates enzymes, thus prolonging the shelf life of frozen foods.

Sweetened cooked desserts made with milk, thickened with cornflour or gelatin and flavoured, such as with vanilla. Served cold with sauces or fruit toppings.

Making a material whiter or lighter by a chemical process or by exposure to sunlight. Bleaching agents may be employed. For example, oils can be bleached using fuller's earth, activated carbon or activated clays. Many impurities, including chlorophylls and carotenoid pigments, are adsorbed onto such agents and removed by filtration. When some oils are heated, heat bleaching takes place, in which pigments such as carotenoids are converted to colourless materials.

Substances used to make a material whiter or lighter by a chemical process. Examples include fuller's earth, activated carbon and activated clays, which are used to bleach oils. Impurities are adsorbed onto such agents, which are then removed by filtration. Other bleaching agents used in the food industry include chlorine, chlorine dioxide, sodium metabisulfite, and hydrogen peroxide.

Removal of as much blood as possible from an animal's body during slaughter; also known as exsanguination. Bleeding should be performed soon after stunning. Thorough bleeding is an essential step in conventional slaughter. As blood is an excellent medium for growth of spoilage bacteria, retained blood can lead to early decomposition of meat; moreover, excess blood in meat is unappealing to consumers. In general, only about 50% of total blood volume can be removed; the remainder is held mainly in vital organs. In sheep and cattle, bleeding is usually effected by severing the carotid arteries and jugular veins; in swine, the anterior vena cava is usually severed.

The mixing and combining of two or more ingredients with a spoon, beater or electric blender to form a harmonious combination. This term also relates to a mixture of two or more flavours combined to obtain a particular character and quality, as in wines, teas and blended whisky.

Medium-sized antelopes (Damaliscus dorcas phillipsi) found in elevated grasslands of South Africa. Hunted as game. Meat is red, with a low fat content, and is tender and juicy when cooked. Eaten fried, grilled, roasted or in dishes such as casseroles and stews. Also made into biltong or jerky.

Any of various plant diseases that cause rapid withering of aerial plant parts (leaves, stems, fruits). Can cause severe economic and quality losses in crops, e.g. potato blight, caused by Phytophthora infestans infection of potatoes, or Fusarium head blight in wheat.

A red viscid liquid consisting of a straw-coloured liquid portion, plasma, in which various types of blood cells are suspended, including: red blood cells (erythrocytes); white blood cells (leukocytes); lymphocytes; and platelets. Plasma also contains dissolved proteins, fats, minerals, salts and sugars. Blood collected hygienically from slaughtered food animals forms an article of food. As a food, it must not be contaminated with stomach ingesta, urine or foreign material. Preliminary processing includes whipping or defibrination to prevent clotting; anticoagulants, such as sodium citrate or sodium phosphate, may be added to blood for human consumption. Both blood and blood components are used in foods; for example, they are used as ingredients in blood sausages, comminuted meat products and dry protein concentrates.

The pressure of blood within the arteries which, in general, is governed by cardiac output and arterial tone. Arterial pressure cycles from a minimum at diastole (diastolic blood pressure), when the heart is filling, up to a maximum at systole (systolic blood pressure), when the heart is at peak contraction. Can be affected by a range of dietary components.

Include both plasma proteins and proteins from the cellular components of blood, particularly albumins, globulins and fibrinogen. Commonly, they are recovered from blood by ultrafiltration. Blood proteins from animals have many food uses; for example, they are used as binders in sausages and as ingredients, particularly as emulsifiers, in other foods.

Cooked sausages produced using cattle and/or swine blood, but also including ingredients such as diced, cooked pork fat, cooked meat mince, gelatin-producing materials, bread, apples, chestnuts, onions, cream and a wide range of spices. Flavourings used vary from region to region, and national preference for texture also varies. For example, French, Italian and Spanish-style blood sausages are moist and have a loose texture, whilst German and English versions are more compact. Blood sausages are usually sold precooked, but tend to be grilled or fried whole, or cut into slices and grilled before serving. Varieties produced in different countries include blutwurst in Germany, morcilla in Spain, black puddings in the UK, boudin noir in France and biroldo in Italy.

Spoilage of chocolate by fat or sugar deposition. Fat bloom is the appearance of white spots (composed of crystals) on the surface of chocolate, caused either by cocoa butter triacylglycerols undergoing polymorphic transition at the surface, or by cocoa fats rising to the surface of the chocolate as a result of high or fluctuating temperatures. Sugar bloom is deposition of sugar crystals on the surface of chocolate, caused by excessive moisture.

Physiological disorder of plants associated with calcium deficiency. Affects tomatoes and some other crops such as watermelons and peppers.

Transfer of nucleic acids and/or proteins either directly or from a gel to a chemically reactive matrix (e.g. nitrocellulose), on which the nucleic acids/proteins bind covalently in a pattern identical to that on the original gel. After blotting, target molecules are detected through the use of complementary labelled nucleic acids or antibodies. Includes northern blotting, Southern blotting and western blot-ting.

Defect of cheese, also known as late blowing, that leads to gas formation and abnormal flavour development during ripening. Caused by butyric acid fermentation by Clostridium tyrobutyricum, a pasteurization-resistant contaminant of milk that can occur when animals have been fed silage.

Thick, subdermal lipid layer found in cetacea and other large marine animals, often forming up to 25% of the animal's total weight and acting as an insulator. May often become contaminated by organochlorine compounds such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB). Frequently consumed by Arctic inhabitants.

Hard white cheese with blue veins. It usually has a tangy or spicy flavour. In addition to being eaten as a dessert cheese, it is also used in salad dressings, dips and sauces.

Marine crabs (Callinectus sapidus) found on the Atlantic coast and Gulf coast of the USA. The most commercially valuable crab species consumed in the USA. Usually marketed fresh, in soft and hard shell stages.

Older term for cyanobacteria, a large group of prokaryotic, photosynthetic, unicellular or filamentous organisms, which differ from other bacteria in that they possess chlorophyll a and carry out photosynthesis. Occur in fresh, brackish, marine and hypersaline waters. Some freshwater bloom-forming strains (e.g. Anabaena, Microcystis and Nodularia) produce potent cyanotoxins (saxitoxin, microcystins and nodularin, respectively) which may contaminate reservoirs. Tainting of drinking water supplies by such cyanobacterial blooms may cause illness or death in humans and animals which drink the water.

Common name for mussels of the species Mytilus edulis or M. galloprovincialis which have high commercial value. Distributed worldwide. Due to high demand, wild populations are supplemented with mussels produced by aquaculture.

Marine fish species (Micromesistius poutassou) from the cod family (Gadidae) which is widely distributed across the northern Atlantic Ocean and also occurs in the west Mediterranean Sea. Has tender white fine-textured flesh with a flaky delicate flavour. Marketed fresh and frozen (mainly headed and gutted), and also processed for fish oils and fish meal. In France, this fish is utilized for the production of fish balls.

Edible, smooth-skinned dark blue berries of several species of Vaccinium, grown predominantly in North America. Fruit of V. corynbosum are known as highbush blueberries, while those of V. angustifolium are known as lowbush blueberries. Berries are similar in flavour to European bilberries and contain a wide range of phytochemicals and anti-oatmeal, oxidant vitamins. Eaten raw or consumed in baked or other processed foods.

Marine fish species (Pomatmus saltatrix) of high commercial value belonging to the family Pomatomidae. Widely distributed in all world oceans with the exception of the eastern and north-western Pacific Ocean. Mainly marketed fresh, but also sold frozen, dried or salted. A popular game fish, produced commercially by aquaculture.

Salty, spicy blood sausages, originally made in Germany, that are prepared from pork, beef and cattle blood. Commonly, they are eaten as a snack or mixed with sauerkraut. Sold precooked, but usually heated before serving.

Pork produced from entire male swine carcasses. In comparison with pork produced from castrated male swine, boar meat comes from leaner carcasses which have larger eye muscles, and the meat has a better flavour. However, consumers may avoid boar meat because it is perceived to be associated with boar taint. Other problems may include poor slicing properties, poor rind finish and soft fat, skin blemishes from fighting, poorer yields of matured bacon, high carcass pH values, lower keeping quality, and presence of the PSE defect.

An unpleasant off odour and off flavour, which arises when meat from certain swine is heated. Also known as boar odour. Boar taint occurs mainly in boar meat but may also occur, to a lesser extent, in pork from female and castrated male swine. Boar taint sensitivity differs markedly between consumers; notably, more women than men are able to detect it. The major compounds responsible are androstenone and skatole in swine fat. Taint associated with skatole is characterized by the descriptors mothball and musty, and that associated with androstenone by parsnips, silage, sweaty and dirty. An integrated approach to management of boar taint has been proposed, involving techniques such as immunocastration, genetic selection and processing of tainted meat.

Long, flat, usually rectangular, piece of rigid or semi-rigid composite material used to make containers, e.g. boxes or cartons. Available in various types that differ in composition and thickness, including cardboard, paperboard and fibreboard.

Mature entire male swine. Usually those used for breeding, but can also relate to those used for meat production. Production of boar meat has certain economic advantages to the producer, as boars grow faster and use feeds more efficiently than castrated male swine; they are thus a source of cheaper lean meat. However, boars are more excitable than castrated male swine and fighting may occur during transport and lai-rage, causing stress, skin damage, high carcass pH values, rapid spoilage and the PSE defect in the meat produced. In broader use, the term is used to describe mature males of certain other mammalian species, such as guinea pigs or hedgehogs.

Mildly flavoured, fresh or parboiled German sausages, a type of bruehwurst, made from veal and pork, usually with a higher proportion of veal. Recipes often include chives, chopped parsley, eggs and milk. The sausages have a short shelf life and require thorough cooking before they are eaten. Traditionally, they are served with bock beer, especially during Bavarian bock beer festivals in Germany.

Abbreviation for biological oxygen demand.

Texture term relating to the fullness of a product; especially applied to wines.

Index of human obesity which is calculated as the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in metres. The normal range is usually quoted as 20-25 kg/m2.

Additives used to impart desirable body, viscosity and consistency to foods. Often used to improve texture of low calorie foods.

Marine fish species (Boops boops) of high commercial importance belonging to the porgies family (Sparidae). Found in the eastern Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea. Marketed fresh and frozen and eaten pan-fried, broiled or baked.

Boneless ham, which is cured, shaped and fully cooked by steaming or boiling. It is sold whole or is sliced and packaged before retail.

Sausages that are heat processed by boiling during manufacture. Examples include Pariska, Posebna and Hrenovke sausages.

Sugar confectionery products formed by boiling sugar and glucose syrups with flavourings and other ingredients as required, to form a glassy mass upon cooling.

Fuel-burning devices for heating water in which foods can be immersed and cooked.

Process of raising the temperature of a liquid, by application of heat, to the point where it bubbles and turns to vapour. The term also means cooking food in a boiling liquid.

Temperature at which a liquid boils. This occurs when the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure of the surrounding environment. Usually abbreviated to b.p.

A large genus of wild fungi, many of which are edible. B. edulis (also known as cep) is one of the best known edible species. It is found throughout Europe and can be fried, baked in casseroles, used in salads or soups, or dried. B. badius is another edible species with a similar flavour to B. edulis.

Smoked, cooked sausages prepared from finely minced, cured pork and/or beef. Their name originates from the city of Bologna in Italy, but true Italian bologna is known as mortadella. Bologna of various diameters can be purchased in rings, rolls or slices; they are retailed fully cooked and ready to serve. Types of bologna include chub bologna, beef bologna and ham-style bologna.

Common name, used especially in Egypt, for the freshwater fish Oreochromis niloticus (formerly Tilapia nilotica), also known as Nile tilapia. Of high commercial importance. Widely distributed in lakes and rivers in Africa and also produced by aquaculture. Marketed fresh and frozen.

Marine fish species (Harpodon nehereus) from the Indo-West Pacific; primarily caught along the coast of the Maharashtra region of India. Regarded as an excellent food fish with jelly-like flesh having high moisture content. Marketed fresh and as a dried/salted product.

Generic term for sugar confectionery. Applied to a variety of types of sweets, often with a chewy centre.

Soft, gelatinous, highly vascular connective tissues that occur in certain long bones. Responsible for producing red blood cells as well as many white blood cells. When bones of high marrow content are used during mechanical recovery of meat, the lipid and haem concentrations of the recovered product are increased, and the tendency of the meat to undergo oxidation is increased.

Level of mineralization of bone. Measurements can be taken by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry or ultrasound, and are used in the clinical assessment of osteoporosis risk. Many dietary and lifestyle factors have been proposed to modulate bone mineral density, including positive effects being reported for dietary calcium, tea, soy isoflavones and vegetable proteins.

Components of the skeleton made from hard, rigid structural material. Bones are composed of an organic matrix of collagen, osseoalbumoid and osseomucoid; this is impregnated with mineral salts, particularly calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate and magnesium phosphate. Fluorides and sulfates are also present. The central cavities of most bones contain red bone marrow; however, the cavities of the long bones contain yellow marrow. Bones are processed to produce fats and gelatin. Chopped bones may be boiled to prepare bone broth. Degreased animal bones are used to prepare bone meal, which is used as a supplementary source of calcium and phosphates in foods and feeds, and as a source of phosphates in plant fertilizers. Bone charcoal is used in sugar refining and in bleaching. Specialized bone powders are used to remove fluorine from drinking water.

Traditional Indonesian type of tempeh made by fermentation of presscake of coconuts or coconut milk residue with Rhizopus oligosporus. Consumption can lead to fatal food poisoning due to contamination of the product with Pseudomonas cocovenenans (Burkholderia cocovenenans), strains of which produce the toxins toxoflavin and bongkrekic acid; favourable conditions for optimum production coincide with conditions under which bongkrek is manufactured.

Removal of the bones from meat or fish, usually before cooking.

Any of several species of medium sized tuna, especially those from the genus Sarda, including S. sarda (Atlantic bonito), S. chilliensis (Pacific bonito) and S. orientalis (Oriental bonito). Fat content of flesh ranges from moderate to high; the most strongly flavoured of the tunas. Marketed mainly fresh; also dried-salted, canned and frozen.

Deep fried fritters made with Bengal gram meal and eaten as snack foods in India.

Common name for the Mediterranean herb, Borago officinalis. Leaves have a flavour reminiscent of cucumbers and are consumed as a vegetable or used in flavourings for beverages, soups and salads. The purple star-shaped flowers are used as a garnish, often in crystallized form. Seeds are used for production of borage oils.

Oils derived from the European herb, Borago officinalis, which contain γ-linolenic acid, palmitic acid, oleic acid and linoleic acid.

Genus of palms which includes Borassus flabellifer, also known as palmyra palm, a species which yields edible fruit and whose inflorescence is a source of palm wines, sugar and vinegar. B. aethiopum (black rum palm) is also utilized as a source of ingredients for foods and beverages.

Broad-spectrum fungicide originally developed in France to control disease in grapes. Made by mixing copper sulfate and hydrated lime in water. Used to control disease in a wide range of tree fruits, nuts and vine fruits.

Acid used in preservatives for sea foods and wines.

Seed lipid from Shorea stenoptera which is rich in palmitic acid, stearic acid and oleic acid. Shows a sharp melting profile due to its high content of a single triacylglycerol (stearic acidoleic acid-stearic acid, SOS) and may be used in cocoa butter equivalents.

Member of the terpene alcohols class of flavour compounds present in many fruits, herbs and spices.

Genus of woody flowering plants. Flowers of some species, especially Boronia megastima, yield essential oils which are used in fruit flavourings for foods and beverages.

Soups made from meat stocks, beet-roots and cabbages. Popular in Russia, the Ukraine and Poland. Served hot or cold, usually with a dash of sour cream.

Genus of fungi of the class Hyphomycetes. Includes many species which are plant pathogens, e.g. Botrytis aclada, B. cinerea and B. fabae.

Mineral waters which have been packaged in bottles for distribution and retail sale.

Any type of potable water which has been packaged in bottles for distribution and retail sale.

Portable containers often made from glass or plastics, used to hold or store liquids. Typically with narrow necks, which can be closed with caps, corks or stoppers. The term also refers to metal containers which are used to transport and store liquefied gases.

Process of putting substances into bottles for storage and preservation. Most commonly applied to beverages, such as wines, fruit juices and beer, but also used to describe a method of preserving fruits in syrups or in the form of jams. After the products have been placed in the bottles, the containers are sealed with corks or other closures to prevent air or microorganisms from entering and causing spoil-age.

Brewers yeasts (Saccharomyces spp. ) which flocculate and collect at the bottom of the fermentation tank during fermentation of beer. Used in brewing of a range of beer types, including lager.

Foodborne disease caused by ingestion of food contaminated with botulotoxins produced by Clostridium botulinum. Symptoms include vomiting, abdominal pain, visual disturbances and difficulty in speaking and swallowing. Foods commonly implicated are low-acid, low-salt foods (e.g. improperly canned vegetables and soups, and fish and meat products).

Extremely potent neurotoxins produced by Clostridium botulinum, which cause botulism. Also known as botulinus toxins, botulinum toxins, botulins and botulismotoxins.

Thin, unclarified broths or soups typically made by boiling beef or chicken in water. Similar to stocks.

Aroma of foods or beverages, in particular, that of wines.

A type of American corn whiskey, originally made in Bourbon County, Kentucky, USA.

Relating to or belonging to the cattle family.

Lentiviruses which cause lymphadenopathy, lymphocytosis, central nervous system lesions, progressive weakness and emaciation in cattle.

Alternative term for beef.

Protein fraction present in cattle blood and frequently used as a model in studies on factors influencing properties and behaviour of food proteins.

Alternative term for bovine growth hormone. Recombinant bovine somatotropin may be administered to cattle to modify milk production, growth rate, or composition of cattle carcasses or beef. This application is permitted in some countries but prohibited in others due to concerns about the safety of food products.

Commonly abbreviated to BSE, one of a group of prion diseases, this one affecting cattle. BSE can be transmitted to humans and other animal species via contaminated cattle-derived foods and feeds. Individual cattle in the UK were probably first infected with BSE in the 1970s, but BSE was not formally identified until November 1986. It is believed to have developed because of intensive farming practices, particularly the inclusion of meat and bone meal from animal carcasses in cattle feeds. Currently, it is believed that BSE may have originated in an individual cow as a consequence of a gene mutation and spread to other cattle because of recycling of cattle remains in cattle feeds. In cattle, BSE has a 5-yr incubation period. Despite various warnings, including the realization in 1990 that BSE could be transmitted to cats, BSE was not widely recognized as a threat to human health until variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) was identified in 1996. This discovery was followed rapidly by a worldwide ban on all UK beef exports by the European Union and the banning of cattle of >30 months of age from the UK food chain. Health and safety concerns relating to BSE have severely damaged the UK farming industry and threaten to have similar effects in continental Europe.

Genus of fungi of the class Basidiomycetes. Bovista plumbea (lead puffball) and B. nigrescens (dark puffball) are edible mushrooms.

Common name for the large and/or small intestines. They form a part of edible offal.

Round, concave containers, usually hemispherical and open at the top which can be used for holding foods. Made from various materials, including glass, wood and plastics. Also a specific type of drinking goblets.

Containers with the four sides perpendicular to the base and a cover or lid. Made from various materials, including wood, cardboard and plastics. Can be used to store or package foods.

Common name for the solanaceous plant Lycium chinense, also known as matrimony vine. Fruits and leaves are used as foods (vegetables) and/or tea infusions in the Orient.

Rubus hybrid berries obtained by crossing loganberries, raspberries and blackberries. Purple red in colour, and a rich source of anthocyanins.

Fermented beverages consumed traditionally in Turkey, Bulgaria and other Balkan countries. Made from various types of cereal, most commonly bulgur wheat or millet, but also barley, oats or corn, which is cooked in water and then crushed before fermenting with yeasts. The thick beverage has an unusual sweet and sour flavour. It is served chilled, sprinkled with cinnamon and garnished with roasted chick peas.

Edible ferns from Pteridium aquilinum and related species. Consumed as a vegetable in some parts of the world, including Japan, New Zealand and Canada. Also used as a source of starch. Bracken contains a number of toxins such as ptaquiloside, a potent carcinogen, which can also be transmitted via milk from cattle feeding on bracken. Curled, undeveloped bracken fronds (fiddleheads), which are consumed as a delicacy in some areas, are particularly hazardous to health, as they contain carcinogens that must be destroyed by roasting before consumption. Bracken fiddleheads can be consumed accidentally as they resemble those of the ostrich fern, which are not poisonous.

The main organs of the central nervous system (CNS), located within skulls. Brains of slaughtered animals are a part of edible offal; however, in many European countries, recent concerns relating to prion diseases have led to the exclusion of brains and other central nervous system tissues from the food chain. Nevertheless, the protein component of brains has a well-balanced amino acid composition. Brains have a very high content of fat, a large proportion of which is made up of complex phospholipids and glycolipids. Brains are a rich source of minerals (especially Fe, P, Ca and Mn) and vitamins B2 and B12.

Light frying of foods (usually meat or vegetables) followed by stewing in a small amount of liquid at low heat for a lengthy period of time in a closed (tightly covered) container. The long, slow cooking develops flavour and causes tenderization of the food by gently breaking down fibres. Braising can be undertaken on stoves or in ovens.

Protective outer layer of the seeds of cereals that is separated from the kernels during milling. Often used in breakfast cereals and other products as a source of dietary fibre.

Alternative term for 1,4-α- glucan branching enzymes.

Spirits manufactured by distillation of fermented fruit-based mashes or wines (including grape wines or fruit wines) or wine by-products.

Process of applying a trademark or distinctive logo to a food or its packaging to identify its manufacturer or retailer.

Spirits manufactured by distillation of wines; unless further qualified, the term brandy generally refers to spirits distilled from grape wines.

Genus of plants belonging to the Cruciferae family. Native to the Mediterranean region and cultivated widely in Europe. Important Brassica crops include cabbages, cauliflowers, broccoli, swedes, turnips, rape and mustard. Also of interest due to their contents of compounds believed to protect against cancer (e.g. indoles and glucosinolates).

Oilseeds produced by plants of the genus Brassica, including rapeseeds and mustard seeds.

Phytosterols fraction which is characteristic of vegetable oils derived from Brassica oilseeds (including rapeseed oils) and may be used as an indicator of adulteration of other oils with rapeseed oils.

Hydroxysteroids which act as plant growth regulators in a wide range of plants, including food crops.

Fresh sausages, usually made from a mixture of highly seasoned pork, veal and onions. Seasonings may include ginger, nutmeg, coriander or caraway. Numerous different types of bratwurst are produced in Germany; many districts produce their own special varieties. Traditional bratwurst must not contain nitrites as curing salts. Although some pre-cooked bratwurst is sold, most requires cooking before it is eaten. Other product names may also include the term bratwurst (e.g. bauernbratwurst and smoked bratwurst), but these sausages are produced by hot smoking and fermentation and are classified as raw dry sausages, rohwurst.

Meat products prepared from pork, swine ears and swine tongues. Ingredients are boiled with herbs and peppercorns before mincing and pressing into a mould. Mock brawn differs from brawn as it is prepared from different types of offal.

Oils derived from Brazil nuts, large, edible seeds of the South American tree Bertholletia excelsa. Contain olein, palmitin and stearin.

Nuts produced by the South American tree, Bertholletia excelsa. Eaten raw, salted or roasted, or added to other foods such as ice cream and confectionery. Good source of several B vitamins and minerals, with particularly high amounts of bioavailable selenium. Used as a source of brazil nut oils.

High potency, sweet-tasting thermostable protein from the west African plant Pentadiplandra brazzeana. Has potential as a low-calorie sweetener.

Baked dough product made from cereal grains (mostly commonly wheat) ground into flour, moistened and kneaded into a dough and then baked. Often leavened by the action of bakers yeasts or by addition of sodium bicarbonate.

The soft inner part of bread, which is surrounded by the bread crust.

Crisp, outer part of bread, which is dehydrated and browned during baking.

Unbaked thick, plastic mixture of flour and liquid (e.g. water) that is kneaded, shaped and rolled to make bread. The elasticity of bread dough is dependent upon the amount of gluten contained in the flour.

Alternative term for bread-making.

Bread products formed from pieces of dough shaped as required before baking. May have a soft or crisp crust. Also commonly referred to as rolls.

Small fragments prepared by grinding bread. Used in coatings, usually for foods to be fried, stuffings and in some desserts.

Green, starchy fruits from the breadfruit tree (Artocarpus communis syn. A. altilis). An important subsistence crop of the Pacific islands, where it provides a significant source of energy due to its high starch content. Also popular in the Caribbean and throughout the tropics. Fruit is typically roasted, boiled or fried and consumed as a vegetable; it can also be fermented or processed into meal. Breadfruit seeds are also eaten in some areas and are a good source of proteins (the seeded form of breadfruit is known as breadnut).

Coating of foods with breadcrumbs or other crumbs usually before frying or baking. The food is dipped first into a liquid (e.g. beaten eggs, milk or beer), then into the crumbs, which may be seasoned with herbs or spices. The breaded product is then fried or baked. Breading serves to retain the moisture content of the food and forms a crisp crust after cooking.

Breadcrumbs and other types of crumb used in breading foods, usually before frying or baking.

Process by which bread is prepared from flour and other ingredients that vary according to the type of bread to be made. Steps involved include fermentation, kneading of the dough, proofing and baking.

Characteristics of cereals, flour or dough that determine their suitability for bread manufacture.

First meal of the day. Typical breakfast foods include breakfast cereals, toast, bread rolls and other morning goods.

Cereal products commonly consumed with milk or cream as part of breakfast. Pre-cooked or ready to eat foods prepared from cereal grains by processes such as flaking, puffing, toast-ing or shredding. Often sweetened with sugar, syrup or fruits. May be enriched with bran as a source of extra dietary fibre.

General term applied to foods, especially cereal products and bakery products, which are commonly eaten as part of breakfast. Include breakfast cereals, bread, muffins, bagels, pancakes and waffles.

Freshwater fish species (Abramis brama) distributed across Europe and parts of Asia; a member of the carp family (Cyprinidae). The flesh is bony, insipid and soft. Marketed fresh or frozen and eaten steamed, grilled, fried and baked. In Greece, roe from bream is used to make a type of caviar.

Malignant tumour originating from breast tissue. Dietary factors, including fat intake, have been suggested to increase cancer risk. As the tumours are often hormone-dependent, phytoestrogens, such as isoflavones and lignans present in plant foods, have been studied extensively as potential chemopreventive agents.

Feeding of a suckling infant with human milk from the mother's breast.

Alternative term for human milk.

Swedish butter substitute made by mixing approximately 80% butterfat with 20% vegetable oil, usually soybean oil, and processing using the same principles as in buttermaking. The product has good spreadability direct from the refrigerator and a flavour similar to that of butter. It has a relatively high content of linoleic acid.

Moist, very lean, cured, air-dried meat products, commonly made from beef, and sometimes from horse meat. A speciality of northern Italy. Usually, bresaola is cut into paper-thin slices before serving with bread and fruits or pickled vegetables. A similar Swiss product is called bundnerfleisch.

Genus of yeast fungi of the class Hyphomycetes. Can cause spoilage of beer, grape musts, wines, soft drinks and pickles.

Potent neurotoxins produced by the unicellular dinoflagellate protozoan Ptychodiscus brevis. Also known as brevitoxins. Responsible for shellfish poisoning in humans.

Genus of Gram positive, aerobic, coryneform bacteria of the order Actinomycetales. Occur in soil, water, dairy products and decomposing matter. Brevibacterium linens may be used as a starter in the production of smear-ripened cheese.

Industrial premises used for brewing of beer.

Waste water from breweries.

Alternative term for brewers spent grains.

By-products from the clarification stage of the brewing process, comprising the solid residue of substances such as malt grist, from which the soluble material has been extracted in the mashing process.

Yeasts of the genus Saccharomyces, now generally classified as S. cerevisiae but some formerly classified as S. carlsbergensis or S. uvarum, used for brewing of beer. Brewers yeasts may be divided into top fermenting yeasts (used for ale and similar beer types) and bottom fermenting yeasts (used for lager and similar beer types) on the basis of their characteristics during the fermentation process.

The process of manufacture of beer; important stages of the process include mashing to extract soluble material from malt and other ingredients, hopping, clarification, boiling the worts, alcoholic fermentation, ageing and filtration.

Fermentable material other than malt used in the brewing process. Brewing adjuncts may include unmalted cereals, syrups or sugars.

By-products of the brewing process, including brewers spent grains, surplus brewers yeasts and carbon dioxide formed during fermentation.

Tea leaves which have been compressed to form a solid block. Widely traded and used in Tibet and parts of China and Central Asia.

Soft French cheese made from cow milk. Produced as a 1 or 2 kg wheel packed in wooden boxes.

The intensity of a colour (in contrast to its hue or saturation). In addition, the term is used to indicate the level of light appearing to emanate from an object.

A marine flatfish species (Scopthalmus rhombus) distributed across the northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and eastern Atlantic along European coasts. Marketed fresh and frozen, whole or gutted and as steaks and fillets.

The luminance of an object, which includes both brightness and saturation.

Artificial colorant also known as FD&C Blue no 1. Imparts a greenish blue tinge to foods. Used in a range of foods, including sugar confectionery, bakery products, desserts and beverages.

Alternative term for cucumber pickles.

Meat that is preserved by brining. Meat cuts may be immersed in brines, which contain salt or salt and other curing agents dissolved in water. However, it takes a long time for brines to diffuse the whole meat product; thus, in general, only speciality meat products are brined by immersion. A more rapid, uniform distribution of brines throughout meat products can be achieved by direct injection of brines into the meat cuts, methods for which include artery pumping, multiple injection and stitch pumping.

Water saturated or strongly impregnated with salt used for pickling or preservation of foods. Sweeteners such as sugar or molasses can be added to the brines to make sweet brines.

The process of treating foods with brines for preservation or pickling.

Alternative term for aubergines.

Rich buns made with flour, butter and eggs and raised with yeasts. Sometimes flavoured with currants, candied fruits, chocolate or cheese; sweet or savoury fillings such as custards or sausages may also be added.

Use of presses for compacting and processing organic waste or compacting plants to reduce volume for valuable material recycling and disposal. In the food industry, ice cream may be formed into bricks, blocks or slabs and sold as briquettes.

Properties that give an indication of the density of sugar in a solution at a specific temperature. Brix values are frequently used to express the sugar levels in fruits, beverages and sugar juices. Named after the German inventor A. F. W. Brix.

Type of faba beans (Vicia faba).

Common name for certain varieties of Brassica oleracea, particularly B. oleracea var. italica. Green sprouting broccoli (also known as calabrese) has a tight cluster of deep emerald green florets on a thick, edible stem and is prepared and used in a similar manner to cauliflowers. Sprouting broccoli has a looser cluster of smaller flower heads. Broccoli is rich in vitamin A and vitamin C and is attracting interest as a source of glucosinolates that may protect against some forms of cancer.

Genus of Gram positive, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria of the family Listeriaceae. Brochothrix thermosphacta may cause spoilage of meat and meat products.

Meat from broilers, specific types of chickens, also used as an alternative term for chicken meat.

Meat from broilers, specific types of chickens, also used as an alternative term for chicken meat.

Fast-growing strains of chickens reared under intensive conditions before slaughter, for meat production at about nine to twelve weeks of age. Development of intensive systems to produce broilers has led to large-scale production at low prices.

Cooking of foods (usually meat or fish) by exposure to direct heat. Food can be broiled in ovens, directly under a gas or electric heat source, or on a barbecue, directly over charcoal or other heat source.

Salts of bromic acid, including potassium bromate, which is used in flour improvers. Bro-mates can also be formed as disinfection by-products during ozonation of drinking water containing bromide ions.

EC 3.4.22.32 (stem bromelain) and EC 3.4.22.33 (fruit bromelain). Cysteine endopeptidases with broad specificity found in the stem and fruit, respectively, of pineapples. Have been used in tenderization of meat, for production of meat and legume protein hydrolysates, and for stabilization of beer.

Salts of hydrobromic acid. Foods may become contaminated with bromides as a result of fumigation with methyl bromide to control infestation with insects.

Member of the halogens group of elements, chemical symbol Br. Occurs naturally in many foods. May also be present in the form of residues of bromides following fumigation.

Insecticide and acaricide used for control of ectoparasites (principally mites and ticks) in farm animals.

Chemical name for the fumigant methyl bromide.

Herbicide with some systemic activity; used for post-emergence control of annual broadleaved weeds in cereals and vegetables (particularly Allium spp.). Often used in combination with other herbicides to extend the spectrum of control. Normally hydrolyses rapidly to less toxic substances in plants and soil. Classified by WHO as moderately toxic (WHO II).

Soups based on stocks to which ingredients such as cereals and vegetables may be added. In microbiology, the term broths refers to liquid culture media.

Physiological disorder affecting apples and pears thought to result from injury caused by carbon dioxide. Characterized by internal browning of the fruit flesh, originating in or near to the core. Extent varies from a small spot of brown to almost the entire flesh being affected. The defect is not detectable externally. Symptoms may increase as storage time is extended.

Rice from which the husks have been removed, leaving the germ and outer layers containing the bran intact.

Any rot resulting in browning and decay of plant tissue, particularly common in fruit trees. Brown rot in pome fruits and stone fruits is frequently caused by fungi of the Monilinia genus.

Granulated white sugar that has been covered with a layer of cane sugar syrups to give it a brown appearance and a caramel-like flavour. Brown sugar has a higher moisture content and a higher ash content than white sugar.

Freshwater form of the species Salmo trutta. Also has a silver bodied migratory form (sea trout) which swims out to sea for a period before returning to freshwater to spawn. Marketed fresh, frozen or smoked.

Moist, fudge-like cakes originating from the USA. Made with chocolate and frequently nuts, especially walnuts or peanuts.

Process by which foods become brown, resulting from either enzymic or nonenzymic reactions. Enzymic browning occurs in freshly cut fruits and vegetables due to the oxidation of phenols by catechol oxidases. nonenzymic However, browning is generally a consequence of the Maillard reaction. Browning can be either a favourable process and encouraged using browning agents, or un-favourable and reduced using browning inhibitors.

Ingredients or additives that browning of foods during processing, promote thereby imparting a darker colour to the finished product. Examples include caramel, milk and certain sugars. Commercial browning agents are often applied to foods cooked in microwave ovens in order to produce surface browning.

Substances used to prevent browning in foods, also known as anti-browning agents. Use of sulfur dioxide or sulfites is one of the most widespread chemical means of controlling enzymic browning nonenzymic both and browning. Other browning inhibitors include kojic acid, which inhibits tyrosinase activity, citric acid and cysteine.

Alternative term for browning.

Alternative term for microwave susceptors.

Genus of Gram negative, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria of the family Brucellaceae. Occur as intracellular parasites or pathogens in humans and animals. Brucella abortus causes undulant fever in man.

Any human or animal disease caused by infection with Brucella species. In humans, Brucella abortus, B. melitensis and B. suis can cause an acute or chronic systemic disease (undulant fever or Malta fever, respectively) characterized by fever, weakness and general malaise. Transmitted to humans by direct or indirect contact with infected animals or raw milk.

Frankfurter-type sausages which are heat treated during preparation. The various types of bruehwurst include beutelwurst and bockwurst. Skinless varieties are produced by heating the sausage emulsion in a mould; the outer layer of emulsion sets to form a firm skin. For optimum quality, bruehwurst sausages are made from slaughter-warm meat. Major defects include weakness of flavour and incorrect use of seasonings. In fat-reduced bruehwurst, texture may be very firm and rubbery.

Damage to the surface of foods, particularly fruits and vegetables, resulting from mechanical impacts.

Common name for Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera. A relatively recent variety of cabbage characterized by a stout stem yielding numerous compact heads (sprouts) resembling miniature cabbages. Consumed fresh as a winter vegetable and also available frozen. A good source of vitamin C, vitamin A, folic acid and potassium. Like other Cruciferae, contain phytochemicals such as indole glucosinolates, which may help protect against cancer.

Soft Slovak cheese made from ewe milk that is popular throughout Eastern Europe. It is matured for at least 4 weeks and has a fat content of about 45%. Similar cheeses are the Romanian Brinza, Hungarian Brynza, Sirene from Bulgaria and Greek Feta.

Abbreviation for bovine spongiform encephalopathy.

Sweetened products made from chicle (gum-like exudate consisting of coagulated milky juice from the bark of the evergreen sapodilla tree, Achras zapota) or similar resilient substances (e.g. plasticized rubber or polymers), and chewed for its flavour. Bubble gums differ from chewing gums in the user's ability to blow bubbles from them during chewing.

Aromatic oils which are extracted from leaves of the African shrubs Agathosma betulina and A. crenulata. Used in flavourings.

Grains of Fagopyrum esculentum used as a cereal. Unsatisfactory for the manufacture of bread. Whole grains are cooked like rice and made into baked puddings. Also made into other products such as porridge, noodles or griddle cakes. Good source of protein, niacin and vitamin B1.

Flour made from buckwheat grains. Most commonly used in making pancakes, such as blini.

Oils extracted from the grains of buckwheat.

A type of fermented fish sauce produced from salted anchovy. Product has an olive-brown colour. Popular in Malaysia and Thailand.

Butter made from buffalo milk.

Cheese made from buffalo milk.

Common name for Cucurbita foetidissima. Potential starch crop or source of oilseeds. The root starch has physicochemical properties intermediate between those of cassava and corn.

Meat from buffaloes, that has a similar flavour to beef, but a lower content of fat. During cooking, care must be taken to prevent the meat from drying out.

Milk obtained from buffaloes. Compared with cow milk, buffalo milk has a higher fat content (approximately 8%), higher contents of protein, calcium and some other minerals, vitamin A and biotin, and lower contents of potassium, and vitamin B2 and vitamin B6. Contains no carotenes. Used in making a range of dairy products, including Mozzarella cheese and Domiati cheese.

Cheese made from buffalo milk.

Soft Italian plastic, spun-curd cheese made from pasteurized buffalo milk. The curd is treated with extremely hot water and kneaded into a shiny lump.

Yoghurt made by fermenting buffalo milk.

The general name for several species of large ruminant mammals in the family Bovidae. Buffaloes are native to sub-Saharan Africa (Synceros caffer) and to India and south-east Asia (genus Bubalus, in which there are four species); in these regions, domesticated buffaloes are used to provide draft power, buffalo meat and buffalo milk. Buffaloes are also farmed in other countries, such as Italy, as sources of buffalo meat and buffalo milk. In popular use, the term buffaloes is also used to describe North American bison.

Ability of a substance or solution to resist change in acidity or alkalinity.

Cracked wheat grains prepared from soaking, cooking, drying and light milling. May be ground into flour; also used in many Middle Eastern dishes.

Weight per overall unit volume of a substance. Bulk density is used in particular for porous substances where density is affected by pore volume and can be increased by the presence of pore fluid.

Originally used to describe inert products added to contribute bulk and act as inexpensive fillers/extenders for more expensive ingredients. Now also used in low calorie foods and low fat foods to produce a feeling of satiety and to replace functional properties, flavouring characteristics and other qualities of the sugar and/or fat which has been removed. Substances used as bulking agents include methylcellulose, fibre, polyols and polydextrose.

Meat from specific types of mature, uncastrated, male bovine animals, usually male cattle, and also an alternative term for beef. Beef from older bulls tends to be tough, but toughness is not a problem in beef from younger bulls. Bull beef has a good water binding capacity and a good water holding capacity. Consequently, meat from the forequarters of bull carcasses is often used as an ingredient in sausages. Bull beef tends to have a lower intramuscular fat content than beef from steers. In comparison with beef from steers or heifers, bull beef may be discriminated against as it tends to be darker in colour and coarser in texture, and may lack finish; it is also associated with an increased incidence of the DFD defect.

Mature, uncastrated, male bovine animals, usually cattle. Production of beef from bulls has several advantages over production of that from steers; in particular, bulls grow faster, convert feed more efficiently and achieve greater carcass weight than steers.

Small yeast-raised rounded pieces of bread which are sometimes sweetened or flavoured, and may contain dried fruits. Choux buns are made from choux pastry and usually filled with whipped cream.

Freshwater fish species (Lota lota) related to cod which is the only freshwater member of the hake family (Lotidae). Widely distributed in Europe and the USA, but rare in Great Britain. Has lean white flesh with a delicate flavour. Sold mainly as a salted Soft Italian plastic, product, but also marketed fresh in the USA. Liver is sold smoked or canned in Europe. Also utilized as a source of fish oils and for fish meal production.

Common name for Arctium lappa. Long slender root vegetables with a reddish brown skin and greyish flesh. The plant grows wild in many areas of the USA and Europe, and is cultivated in Japan where it is also known as gobo. The root has a crispy texture and sweet pungent flavour, much prized in Japanese dishes. Also used in the manufacture of pickles and soft drinks.

Concentrated dried dairy products prepared from khoa. Popular as sweets in India.

Alternative term for burfee.

Round, flat cakes of meat mince, cooked by grilling or frying. Specific types of burger include baconburgers, beefburgers, cheeseburgers and hamburgers. They are commonly eaten in bread rolls, served with lettuce, slices of onion and tomato ketchups.

Spanish fresh cheese made from raw cow milk or ewe milk. Pure white with a slightly acid and salty flavour. Used in baking or eaten as a dessert with sugar and honeys.

Genus of aerobic Gram negative bacteria, type species Burkholderia cepacia, species of which were formerly classified as belonging to the genus Pseudomonas. Some species, including B. cepacia, are of potential biotechnological use as producers of enzymes such as lipases, for bioremediation of sites contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls or as biocontrol agents. However, some strains are plant and human pathogens. The species B. cocovenenans produces the toxin bongkrekic acid, responsible for outbreaks of food poisoning associated with the fermented coconut product bongkrek.

African fruit produced by the bush butter or African plum tree (Dacryodes edulis). Tough purple peel encases a layer of bitter greenish flesh surrounding a large seed which is fed to livestock. The fruit must be boiled for approximately 1 minute to make it tender enough to eat.

Alternative term for ewedu.

Synonym for butyric acid. A member of the short chain saturated fatty acids which occur as flavour compounds in a wide range of foods and beverages. Especially characteristic of milk fats and dairy products. At high concentrations, it may be responsible for development of off flavour.

Synonym for butyl alcohol. Member of the alcohols class of flavour compounds which occurs in a wide range of foods.

Member of the ketones class of flavour compounds. Occurs in a wide range of foods, especially dairy products and meat products.

Slaughterhouses where animal carcasses are divided into primal cuts before distribution to the retail meat trade. Some trimming to remove carcass fat may take place at this stage. The pattern of butchering and the naming of the primal cuts generated vary between regions and countries.

Spreadable water-in-oil emulsion product made from milk fats or cream by the buttermaking process. Usually contains at least 80% fat, with the remainder being water. Salt is sometimes added as a flavouring and colour may be adjusted using annatto or β-carotene. Rich in vitamin A; also contains vitamin E and vitamin D. Main types of butter marketed are cultured cream butter (also known as lactic butter or sour cream butter) and sweet cream butter, the latter having a higher pH value.

Alternative term for lima beans.

Marine bivalves (Saxidomus giganteus) found in middle to lower intertidal sediments along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North America. Smaller specimens are often eaten raw, while larger adults are usually steamed or fried; highly prized for production of clam chowders.

Factories in which butter is made.

Buttermaking process.

Milk fat products with a very high fat content, usually not less than 90%, and a very low water content (no greater than 0.5%). In anhydrous butter oils, moisture content is no greater than 0.1%.

Spreads, often low in fat, based on milk fats.

Bacterial mixtures, usually Streptococcus, used in ripening of cream in manufacture of cultured cream butter. Responsible for formation of flavour/aroma compounds such as diacetyl and acetoin. Affect stability of milk fat globule membranes, facilitating their breakdown during churning, the next step in the buttermaking process.

Products intended to be similar to butter in appearance and properties, but which differ in composition.

Common name for Petasites japonicus, a plant with very large, soft leaves formerly used to wrap butter. Leaves are eaten as a vegetable in Korea and Japan.

Used as an alternative term for milk fats, butter oils or ghee.

Marine fish species (Brama brama; also known as pomfret) with a deep laterally compressed body which is widely distributed in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Flesh has high fat content with a tender texture and a rich, slightly sweet flavour. Sold fresh and frozen and cooked in a variety of ways. In the USA, the marine fish Peprilus triacanthus is also commonly known as butterfish; this species is marketed in similar forms to B. brama, but is also popular as a smoked product.

Fat product that was developed originally a substitute for butter. Composed of approximately 80% vegetable, animal or marine fats and 20% water, together with additives such as emulsifiers, color-ants and preservatives.

Process by which butter is made from milk or cream. Consists of cream ripening, churning, washing and working. Cream ripening involves a series of temperature treatments, with or without incubation with butter starters, that affect the consistency and flavour of the final product. Churning breaks up the milk fat globule membranes, allowing formation of butter grains which eventually separate from the buttermilk. The butter grains are washed with water to remove proteins, sugar and microorganisms, and worked into a homogeneous mass by kneading.

Tangy flavoured residue remaining after separation of butter grains during buttermaking. Low in fat but rich in phospholipids and proteins, resulting from breakdown of the milk fat globule membranes during churning of cream. Buttermilk remaining after manufacture of sweet cream butter differs slightly in composition from that resulting from cultured cream buttermaking. A commercial product called cultured buttermilk is made by adding lactic acid bacteria to skim milk, the lactic acid produced during fermentation giving the product a tart flavour similar to that of churned buttermilk. Butter-milk is used as a beverage and as an ingredient in baking.

Nuts produced by Juglans cinerea, trees of the walnut family. Shells are hard, but not difficult to open. Characteristics and food applications of the kernels are similar to those of other walnuts. Also known as white walnuts.

Hard confectionery made by boiling brown sugar and butter or corn syrups together in water. Generally distinguished from caramels by the absence of milk or milk substitutes among the ingredients.

Synonym for butanol. Member of the alcohols class of flavour compounds which occurs in a wide range of foods.

Synonym for 2-aminobutane. Fungicide used to prevent spoilage of fresh fruits and vegetables.

Commonly abbreviated to BHA. A synthetic fat-soluble phenolic antioxidant. It has good heat stability and is widely used in the food industry to add stability to fats and oils. Applications include cereals, confectionery products, bakery products and packaging materials. Often used synergistically with BHT and other antioxidants.

Commonly abbreviated to BHT. A widely used synthetic antioxidant with similar properties to BHA, but less stable at high temperatures. Applications include bakery products, breakfast cereals, and food packaging materials. Displays good synergy when used in combination with BHA.

Organotin compounds including tributyltin and its degradation products, dibutyltin and monobutyltin. Fish, shellfish and marine mammals may be contaminated by tributyltin, as a result of its use as an antifoulant paint additive on ship and boat hulls, docks, fishing nets and buoys to discourage the growth of marine organisms (e.g. barnacles, bacteria, tubeworms, mussels and algae).

Synonym for butanoic acid. One of the short chain saturated fatty acids which occurs as one of the flavour compounds in a wide range of foods and beverages. Especially characteristic of milk fats and dairy products. At high concentrations, it may be responsible for development of off flavour.

Process by which certain bacteria (mainly Clostridium spp.) produce butyric acid. Although a useful industrial process, it can cause cheese spoilage (blowing). Production of butyric acid in the colon by fermentation of dietary fibre may reduce the risk of certain cancers.

Apparatus used to measure the fats content of milk. Samples are mixed with sulfuric acid in special graduated tubes which are then centrifuged. Fat separates as an upper layer, the size of which is measured from the markings on the tube.

Acidic glycoprotein associated with milk fat globule membranes. Has potential roles in lactation and autoimmune disease.

Mycotoxin produced by the heat resistant fungus Byssochlamys fulva, responsible for spoilage of canned fruit products and fruit juices.

Genus of fungi of the order Eurotiales. Occurs in soil. Byssochlamys fulva can cause spoilage of canned foods.

Chemical symbol for carbon.

Chemical symbol for calcium.

Vegetable juices extracted from cabbages (Brassica oleracea). May be blended with other vegetable juices or fruit juices, and may be used in the manufacture of lactic acid fermented beverages.

Any of various cultivated var. of Brassica oleracea. Typically have a thick stalk with a large, compact head formed from green or reddish purple edible leaves (e.g. savoy cabbages, white cabbages). Cabbages that do not form a head are known as kale, winter greens or collards. Consumed as a vegetable, used as coleslaw ingredient or fermented to produce sauerkraut. Red cabbages are used for pickling. Chinese cabbages are Brassica pekinensis.

Spanish hard blue cheese made from cow, ewe and goat milks. Matured in natural limestone caverns. It has a creamy texture, complex flavour and powerful bouquet.

Alternative term for cocoa.

Alternative term for cocoa beans.

Italian soft cheese made from cow milk, but said to have been made originally from mare milk. A traditional, stretched curd cheese that is gourd-shaped and hung from the thin end to mature. Eaten as a table cheese after 3 months and used for grating after 2 years.

Italian cheese produced from cow milk, goat milk, ewe milk or water buffalo milk. Apulian Cacioricotta is a cheese produced on an artisanal scale from pasteurized goat milk in a specific region of Italy. It is eaten fresh as a soft dessert cheese or ripened and used mainly for grating over local dishes.

Italian soft, mild cheese made from cow or ewe milk.

Chemical formula for calcium chloride.

Alternative term for dimethylarsinic acid.

Large family of spiny, succulent plants, fruits from some of which are edible. The most common C edible parts are the fleshy fruits of various species of prickly pears. Other types include Barbados goose-berries and pitayos (pitaya). The sweet fruits of various cacti can also be fermented to produce alcoholic beverages. Garambullo cactus (Myrtillocactus geometrizans) produces purple fruits which are a potential source of betalain type pigments.

Alternative term for cactus pears.

Spiny fruits produced by several varieties of cacti, especially Opuntia ficus-indica. The soft flesh is similar in texture to that of watermelons. Usually eaten fresh, but also used as an ingredient for desserts and beverages. Also known as prickly pears, Indian figs and barberry figs.

Toxic, foul-smelling biogenic amine produced by the decarboxylation of lysine by various microorganisms in decaying meat and fish.

Toxic heavy metal, chemical symbol Cd. May occur as a contaminant in a wide range of foods and beverages.

Radioelement, chemical symbol Cs, which may occur as the radioactive isotopes 137Cs or 134Cs in foods as contaminants from radioactive fallout.

Diterpene found in coffee which increases plasma triacylglycerol and cholesterol concentrations.

Self service restaurants. Often located within larger establishments, such as department stores, schools or universities.

Member of the hydroxycinnamic acid class which occurs in many plants and plant derived foods. Has antioxidative activity in foods.

One of the xanthine alkaloids naturally present in several plant foods, including tea, coffee and cola nuts. Acts as a stimulant. Used as an ingredient in some soft drinks, including cola beverages and energy drinks.

Synonym for chlorogenic acid. Phenol present in many foods of plant origin. Plays an important role in enzymic browning of fruits and vegetables. Has antioxidative activity, and may contribute to possible health-promoting or protective actions of dietary phenolic compounds.

Common name for Spondias lutea (syn. S. mombin), also known as yellow mombin. A South American fruit, the pulp and skin of which are used locally in the preparation of fruit juices, ice cream and liqueurs.

Batters usually prepared from flour, eggs, butter or margarines, and sugar that are used to make cakes. Other ingredients are added according to the type of cakes to be made.

Powdered formulations containing all the ingredients required to make cakes.

Soft bakery products produced by baking a batter containing flour, sugar, baking powders and beaten eggs, with or without shortenings. According to the final product, other ingredients are also included, such as flavourings, nuts, chocolate and dried fruits.

Solidification of powders or granules into a mass. Caking can be a problem during the storage of dried foods and sugar.

Genus of herbs with a mint like aroma. Includes Calamintha nepeta, which is used in soups and sauces.

Medicinal herb (Acorus calumus) also known as sweet flag. Dried rhizomes are used in the formulation of vermouths, liqueurs and bitters, and also for medicinal and veterinary purposes.

Synonym for ergocalciferol and vitamin D2; one of the group of sterols which constitute vitamin D. Synthesized by irradiation of the plant provitamin ergosterol.

Mineral with the chemical symbol Ca. Constituent of most foods and an essential nutrient in the human diet, particularly important for strong bones and teeth of which it is a major component. Rich sources include milk and dairy products, oily fish and spinach; staple foods are sometimes enriched with calcium. Also important in the setting of pectins gels, and the firmness of processed fruit and vegetable products.

Salt, chemical formula CaCl2, widely used as a general purpose food additive. Applications include flavour preservation in pickles, as a firming agent in fruits and vegetables, and as a source of calcium for calcium alginate gels.

The calcium salt of tartaric acid. Calcium tartrate may precipitate in wines, forming an undesirable haze or sediment. Haze stabilization treatments may be required to prevent this problem.

Meat from specific types of young, sexually immature bovine animals, usually milk-fed cattle, and also an alternative term for beef.

Meat from specific types of young, sexually immature bovine animals, usually milk-fed cattle, and also an alternative term for beef.

Substance extracted from the abomasum of calves that is used in coagulation of milk for cheesemaking. The active enzyme is chymosin; pepsin is also present.

Genus of RNA-containing viruses of the family Caliciviridae. Include Norwalk viruses and Norwalk-like viruses, which are responsible for acute gastroenteritis in humans and are transmitted by the faecal-oral route via contaminated water and foods (e.g. shellfish and salads).

In sheep, the callipyge locus is involved in muscling. In lambs expressing this gene, weight of some muscles is increased. However, tenderness of the meat from affected muscles is not as good as in normal lamb. Various techniques for tenderization of meat from callipyge lambs have been investigated, including freezing, electrical stimulation and calcium chloride injection of carcasses.

Mass of cells with no regular form resulting from the growth of undifferentiated tissue on semisolid agar. Used in tissue culture as the starting material for the propagation of plant clones.

Calcium ion binding protein which can moderate the activity of various metabolic enzymes in plants, animals and microorganisms.

Genus that includes some edible fungi, such as the edible milk-white mushroom Calocybe indica.

Metric units of energy used widely to indicate the level of energy in foods and nutrients. One normal calorie (also known as the 15° calorie) is the amount of energy required to heat pure water from 14.5 to 15.5°C at atmospheric pressure (equivalent to 4.185 J). The small calorie or therm is equivalent to 4.204 J and is the energy required to heat pure water from 3.5 to 4.5°C.

Amount of calories in foods or nutrients, indicating the levels of utilizable energy. Also known as energy values.

Technique for measuring the energy content of foods from the number of calories formed during combustion of a known amount of sample.

EC 3.4.22.17. Enzymes involved in meat tenderization during post mortem storage and deterioration of fish proteins gels. There are two main types of calpains, one with high Ca2+ sensitivity in the micromolar range (μ-calpain) and one with low Ca2+ sensitivity in the millimolar range (m-calpain).

Proteinases inhibitors present in meat which act on calpains and play a role in modulating the tenderness of meat during storage.

Apple brandy manufactured in a defined district in the Normandy region of France.

Specific types of young, sexually immature bovine animals, usually cattle which are <8 months of age, that produce beef. Male calves are called bull calves and females are called heifer calves, quey calves or cow calves.

Meat from camels that has a similar appearance, colour, texture and palatability to beef. Mature camels produce rather tough meat; consequently, meat from young animals is often preferred.

Milk obtained from camels. Similar in composition to cow milk, with approximately 4.2% fat, 3.5% protein, 4.5% lactose and 0.8% ash.

The common name for two species of large, herbivorous, long necked, mainly domesticated, ungulate mammals that are well adapted to living in arid conditions. Camels belong to the genus Camelus of the Camelidae family. The one-humped camel is known as the Arabian camel (C. dromedarius) whilst the twohumped camel is known as the bactrian camel (C. ferus). Camels are reared as a source of camel milk and camel meat. They are major meat animals in many Arab and sub-Saharan African countries.

Soft French cheese made from cow milk. Crumbly and soft at the beginning of ripening, it gets creamier over time (usually 2-3 weeks). A genuine Camembert has a delicate salty flavour.

Spanish soft fresh cheese made from raw or pasteurized goat milk. Characterized by a short shelf life.

Herb obtained from Anthemis nobilis (syn. Chamaemelum nobile). The plant is a source of essential oils used to flavour liqueurs, other beverages and confectionery. Flowers are used to make herb tea. Wild camomile (Matricaria recutita syn. M. chamomilla) has similar uses. Also known as chamomile.

Abbreviated name for cyclic adenosine 3',5'- monophosphate, one of the nucleotides. A universally distributed metabolite formed by the action of adenylate cyclase on ATP. cAMP is an important mediator in signal transduction pathways, and an activator of several kinases and physiological processes, including expression of some virulence-related genes in microorganisms.

Sterol which occurs in many vegetable oils and vegetable fats. The relative concentrations of campesterol and other sterol fractions may be used as parameters for identification and authenticity testing of oils.

Non-systemic contact and stomach insecticide with some acaricidal action. Used for control of a wide range of insect pests in crops and soil, often in combination with other pesticides. Usage on crops has largely been displaced by less persistent insecticides. Also known as toxaphene.

Monoterpenoid which is one of the flavour compounds present in a wide range of herbs and spices.

Monoterpene ketone which is one of the flavour compounds in a wide range of herbs and spices.

Genus of Gram negative, microaerophilic rod-shaped bacteria. Occur in the reproductive and intestinal tracts of animals and humans. Some species are pathogenic, e.g. Campylobacter jejuni, which frequently contaminates raw chicken meat. Raw milk is also a source of infection.

Any human or animal disease caused by infection with Campylobacter species. C. jejuni causes food poisoning in man characterized by diarrhoea, fever, abdominal pain, nausea, headache and muscle pain.

Fruits produced by Myrciana dubia, an Amazonian shrub. The round, light orange to purple fruits are the richest source of vitamin C discovered so far. Compared with oranges, they contain 30 times the vitamin C content, 10 times the content of iron, 3 times more niacin, twice as much riboflavin and fifty percent more phosphorus. Fruits are eaten out of hand and the fruit pulp is used to prepare a range of products, including fruit juices and fruit nectars, marmalades, sherbet, vinegar and ice cream. Also known as rumberries.

Small pieces of bread, toast or crackers spread with savoury toppings, such as cheese or pates. Served as appetizers or cocktail snacks.

Annual grass (Phalaris canariensis) from the Mediterranean. Its grains are commonly used as food for caged birds, but also consumed by humans.

Non-protein amino acid, which is a potentially toxic arginine antimetabolite. Found in alfalfa and certain other legumes such as jack beans.

Rapeseed oils derived from a Canadian variety of rapeseeds which contain very low (<2%) amounts of erucic acid. Also low in glucosinolates.

A range of malignant diseases characterized by uncontrolled cell proliferation that results in tissue invasion and destruction. Dietary factors have been linked with increased risk for certain cancers (e.g. high intakes of dietary fats) and with reduced risk (e.g. increased intakes of fruits and vegetables).

Genus of yeast fungi of the class Saccharomycetes. Occur in soil and on plants. May be used in the production of fermented foods (e.g. Candida kefir in the production of kefir and koumiss, and C. famata in the production of fermented sausages). C. lipolytica and C. zeylanoides cause meat spoilage, while C. valida causes spoilage in wines. C. utilis and C. lipolytica may be used for production of single cell proteins.

Fruits, usually whole, preserved by softening in water and then soaking in syrups of progressively increasing sucrose concentrations. After drying, the fruits are coated in sugar to make crystallized fruits or dipped in concentrated sugar syrups to make glace products, such as glace cherries. Often regarded as luxury products, although glace cherries are frequently used as ingredients in bakery products.

Technique for determining the quality of eggs wherein the egg is held before a light which penetrates the egg and makes it possible to inspect the contents and shell.

Sweet crystallized product formed by boiling of sugar. Also a US term for sugar confectionery products in general.

A fluffy mass of spun sugar that is formed from thin threads. Often served on a stick. Also known as cotton candy, particularly in the USA and Canada.

Molasses produced as a by-product of refining of sugar from sugar cane (Saccharum officinarium). Cane molasses are composed of approximately 40% sucrose. Also known as blackstrap molasses and sugar cane molasses.

Sucrose extracted from stalks of sugar cane (Saccharum officinarium). Processing of sugar cane to produce cane sugar involves: washing and cutting the cane stalks; extraction of cane sugar juices by crushing the stalks using a series of heavy rollers; purification of the raw cane sugar juices by precipitation of impurities (liming and clarification); filtration to remove the precipitates; evaporation of the purified juices which results in concentration of the cane sugar juices and crystallization of sucrose. Dried purified cane sugar is composed of •99.80% sucrose and has <0.05% moisture content.

Factories containing processing lines equipped for extracting cane sugar from sugar cane (Saccharum officinarium). Sugar cane factories located close to where the sugar cane is cultivated (plantation factories) are involved with manufacture from sugar cane of pure white sugar or raw cane sugar. Sugar refineries are normally situated nearer to the markets for sugar and are involved in purification of raw or salvaged sugar to produce white sugar.

Aqueous solutions of cane sugar produced during processing of sugar cane. Raw juices are produced by compression of the sugar cane stalks and contain cane sugar and impurities, thin juices are the purified raw juices and thick juices are concentrates of the thin juices.

Highly concentrated aqueous solutions of cane sugar produced by evaporation of purified cane sugar juices (thin juices).

Italian hard cheese made from unpasteurized ewe milk. During manufacture, peppercorns are added after the curd has been cut, scalded and salted. Flavour and consistency vary according to the ripening period selected.

Foods preserved by canning. One of the main advantages of canned foods is their ease of storage at ambient temperatures. Shelf life is typically around 2 years for canned fruits and vegetables and longer for canned meat.

Pasta tubes which may be stuffed with meat, vegetables or cheese and often baked in a tomato or cream sauces.

Factories where foods are canned.

A sterilization process in which spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms are eliminated in foods prior to hermetic sealing in containers (cans). Most commercial canning operations are based on the principle that bacterial destruction increases tenfold for each 10°C increase in temperature. Food exposed to high temperatures for short periods of time is known to retain more of its natural flavour.

Machinery for preservation of foods in sealed containers (cans).

Canning quality scores represent the sum of scores for colour (chroma, uniformity, and attractiveness), wholeness, smoothness, firmness, moistness, lack of fibre, mouthfeel and flavour of canned foods.

Alternative term for rapeseeds.

Alternative term for rapeseed oils.

Uppermost level of plant vegetation in a forest or area under cultivation, such as a vineyard, orchard or vegetable plot. Canopy density and structure affect intensity of light reaching the plant, which may impinge on crop quality.

Rigid cylindrical metal containers made of steel sheet or plate, aluminium, copper or other metals. Used as packaging for foods and beverages; most are sealed hermetically for storage and retail over long periods of time.

One of the main cultivated types of melons (Cucumis melo). Grown commercially in Europe, they have orange (occasionally green), aromatic flesh and a yellowy-orange ribbed, warty rind.

Restaurants located in establishments such as schools and factories. Usually self service and designed to cater for large numbers of people. Also refers to vessels with caps or other closures used for carrying water or other beverages, especially while travelling.

Genus of fungi, which includes chanterelles. True chanterelle (C. cibarius) is a much-prized species in France and continental Europe, characterized by a funnel-shaped, apricot-yellow cap and a faint fruity aroma. Other edible species include C. tubiformis and C. infundibuliformis.

Red pigment of the carotenoids group. Occurs naturally in crustacea and salmonid fish and has antioxidative activity. Used as a feed additive to improve the colour of egg yolks, skin colour of broilers and flesh colour of aquacultured salmon or trout.

Abbreviation for Common Agricultural Policy.

Ability to store energy in the form of electric charge. One of the electrical properties used in a wide range of food industry analyses, examples of which include monitoring of yeasts in brewing, food composition, quality deterioration in frying oils and bottling efficiency.

Small, white or yellow fruits produced by Physalis peruviana (syn. P. edulis). Eaten fresh or used in jams and jelly products. Similar in appearance and utilization to ground cherries (P. pruinosa), but slightly larger in size and less sweet. Also known as goldenberries.

Marine fish species (Mallotus villosus) belonging to the smelt family (Osmeridae) which occurs extensively in the north Atlantic, north Pacific and adjoining regions of the Arctic. Marketed in fresh, frozen, lightly smoked, salted and dried forms. Also utilized as a source of fish oils and for fish meal production.

Unopened flowers of the shrub, Capparis spinosa, pickled in vinegar and used as a spice. Commonly used in pickles, sauces and toppings for pizzas.

Genus of parasitic nematodes of the family Trichuridae. Capillaria philippinensis and C. hepatica, found in freshwater fish, are the causative agents of capillariasis.

Severe and potentially fatal disease in humans caused by eating raw fish contaminated with the larvae of Capillaria philippinensis and C. hepatica. Symptoms include abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and anorexia.

Electrophoresis technique in which separation is performed in buffer filled capillaries across which high voltages are applied. Advantages over conventional electrophoretic techniques include faster analysis and the possibility of incorporating on-line detection of separated species.

Italian cured pork sausages which are a speciality of the Parma region. Pork shoulder is cured, flavoured with spices and seasonings such as sweet red peppers, packed into natural casings and air dried. Eaten raw, especially in antipasti platters.

Castrated male chickens, which are fattened for eating. Compared with cockerels, capons show slightly increased growth rates, less crowing and fighting behaviour, and greater meat tenderness.

Alternative term for caps.

Type of coffee beverage which is topped with whipped cream or frothed milk. Often served sprinkled with cocoa powder or cinnamon.

Semi-synthetic triacylglycerol used in low calorie fat substitutes. Composed of octanoic acid, decanoic acid and behenic acid, the last being only partially absorbed in the gut. Melting profile is similar to that of cocoa butter, meaning that it may be used in the manufacture of confectionery.

Lean meat from goat kids fed on milk up to 5 months of age. Meat is pale pink in colour and finely textured. Low in fat, but rich in protein.

Synonym for decanoic acid. Medium chain fatty acid which occurs in various fats, including milk fats. One of the flavour compounds found in various foods.

Relating to or resembling goats.

Synonym for hexanoic acid. Medium chain fatty acid which occurs in various fats, including milk fats. One of the flavour compounds found in various foods.

Synonym for octanoic acid. Medium chain fatty acid which occurs in various fats, including milk fats. One of the flavour compounds found in various foods.

Protective covers or lids, particularly for bottles. May include a thread and be used to reseal containers after use.

One of the flavour compounds of chillies and other Capsicums, in part responsible for their pungent characteristics.

Flavour compounds of chillies and other Capsicums related to capsaicin and partly responsible for the pungent characteristics.

Pigment of the xanthophylls group which occur in peppers (Capsicums).

Domesticated Capsicum species that includes many of the most economically important capsicums, including bell peppers, paprika, pimiento peppers, and many kinds of chillies. Fruits tend to be less pungent than those of C. frutescens.

Fruits of the Capsicum genus, also known as peppers. The genus contains several domesticated species, such as the economically-important Capsicum annuum and C. frutescens, and many hundreds of varieties. Capsicums are grown worldwide and vary in pod size, colour, shape, flavour and pungency. Some types are used primarily as a vegetable, while others are used as spices or for production of oleoresins. Common types of capsicum include bell peppers, paprika and chillies. Good source of many nutrients including the antioxidant vitamins A, C and E. Pungency is due to the presence of capsaicinoids.

Non-systemic fungicide used for control of a wide range of fungal diseases in fruits, vegetables and cereals. Example uses include: control of scab in apples and pears; control of early and late blights in potatoes; and control of celery leaf spot. Normally degrades rapidly in animals and plants; phthalic acid and ammonia are commonly formed as hydrolysis products. Classified by WHO as extremely hazardous (WHO Ia).

Fungicide used for control of a wide range of fungal diseases in fruits, vegetables and cereals. Examples uses include: control of brown rot in stone fruits; control of leaf spot in carrots; and control of downy mildew in grape vines. Classified by Environmental Protection Agency as not acutely toxic (Environmental Protection Agency IV). Also known as orthocide.

Common name for Averrhoa carambola. Tropical fruits native to Indonesia, and now grown in many hot countries. Rich in vitamin C, with a waxy, golden yellow skin and translucent, juicy yellow flesh with large brown seeds. Can be eaten raw or cooked, or processed into tarts, jams and juice products. Also known as five fingers or star fruit, due to their five prominent spokes and star-shaped cross section.

Complex mixture of brown flavour-ing/colouring substances produced when sugars are heated above their melting point during caramelization. Thermal degradation of the sugars results in a similar bitter-sweet flavour profile to that of molasses and maple syrups. Caramel is used in flavourings and flavour enhancers for a wide range of foods, including caramels, cakes and biscuits. Colouring properties are employed in caramel colorants.

Colorants resulting from the carefully controlled heating of carbohydrates (e.g. sugars or malt syrups) in the presence of small amounts of food-grade acids, alkalis or salts. Widely used to impart a yellow or brown colour to numerous foods and beverages, including cola beverages and other soft drinks, beer, soy sauces, bakery products, browning agents and sausage casings. Both positively and negatively charged caramel colorants are available (particles of the caramel color-ant must have the same charge as the colloidal particles of the product to be coloured, in order to avoid precipitation). Also reported to act as vitamin antagonists to vitamin B6. Caramel is also used in flavourings.

Sugar confectionery products similar to toffees made from sweetened, condensed or evaporated milk, butter or vegetable oils, and sugar. Boiled at lower temperatures than toffees, and may be soft or hard.

Seeds of the umbelliferous plant Carum carvi. Used as a spice in a wide range of products in-cheese, meat and cluding bakery products, schnapps. Caraway essential oils are also widely used for flavouring purposes.

One of the antibacterial drugs which are used as growth promoters in animals. Residues may persist in meat from treated animals.

Group of pesticides which inhibit activity of cholinesterases in insects. Used for control of chewing and sucking insects (especially aphids, whitefly, leaf miners and soil-dwelling insects) in a wide range of fruit, vegetable and cereal crops. Examples include aldicarb, carbaryl and carbofuran.

Synonym for urea. The excretory product of nitrogen metabolism produced in the liver of mammals following the breakdown of amino acids. Its formation during the fermentation of wines is significant, since it is a precursor of ethyl carbamate, a well known carcinogen. Used as a fertilizer and as a feed supplement for ruminants, and is found in milk.

Insecticide with slight systemic properties; also acts as a plant growth regulator. Used for control of chewing and sucking insects in a wide range of fruits, vegetables and cereals. Classified by WHO as moderately toxic (WHO II). Also known as naphthylmethylcarbamate, sevin and vioxan.

Systemic fungicide used for control of a wide range of fungal diseases in cereals, fruits, vegetables, coffee and sugar cane. Degrades relatively slowly in plants. Classified by WHO as slightly toxic (WHO III). Also known as carbendazole.

Alternative term for the fungicide carbendazim.

Alternative term for the insecticide malathion.

Systemic insecticide and nematicide used for control of soil-dwelling and foliar-feeding insects and nematodes in vegetables and cereals. Rapidly metabolizes to less harmful compounds in plants and soil. Classified by WHO as hazardous (WHO Ib).

General name for enzymes that hydrolyse polysaccharides such as starch, celluloses and pectins. Examples of starch-hydrolysing enzymes include α-amylases, β-amylases, dextrin endo-1,6-α-glucosidases and glucan 1,4-α-glucosidases. Other carbohydrases include xylan endo-1,3-β-xylosidases, endo-1,3(4)-β- glucanases and pectic enzymes.

One of the main classes of compounds present in foods, which includes monosaccharides, their derivatives such as glucosides, polyols, nucleotides and nucleosides, and their oligomers and polymers (oligosaccharides and polysaccharides). Important carbohydrates in foods include sugars, starch, pectins, fibre fractions, celluloses and their derivatives, and polysaccharides used as additives such as gelling agents and thickeners.

Pyridoindole compounds which may be formed in foods (e.g. fish and meat) during cooking processing. Tetrahydro-β-carbolines and β- or carbolines, generated during the Maillard reaction, are potential carcinogens.

Element, chemical symbol C, which is a constituent of all organic compounds. A specially modified form, activated carbon, is used in various processing aids, such as adsorbents, filter aids and deodorizing agents, for foods and beverages.

A colourless, odourless gas (chemical formula CO2) produced by the burning of carbon and organic compounds and by respiration, and absorbed by plants in respiration. Used in modified atmosphere packaging of foods.

A colourless, extremely volatile and flammable compound, with chemical formula CS2, with a disagreeable, fetid odour, used in insecti- α- cides. Exposure to carbon disulfide can occur by breathing it in from the air and by drinking water or eating foods that contain it.

Toxic colourless, odourless gas, with the chemical formula, which may be formed by incomplete combustion of carbon-containing materials. May be used in modified atmosphere packaging of meat or other foods.

Synonym for tetrachloromethane. Organic halogen compound and versatile organic solvent whose use has diminished since the discovery that it is carcinogenic. May be used in fumigants. Can occur as a contaminant of treated drinking water.

Process used in the manufacture of white sugar for purification (clarification) of sugar juices. Various carbonatation methods have been developed for specific purposes, but the basic principle is the same. The process involves addition of lime (CaO) to sugar juice followed by bubbling of carbon dioxide through this mixture. A precipitate of CaCO3 forms that entraps suspended impurities within its crystalline structure and adsorbs soluble impurities. Soluble impurities may also react with the lime to form insoluble Ca salts.

Beverages, especially soft drinks, which have been impregnated with sufficient carbon dioxide to cause effervescence.

Conversion of a compound into a carbonate, or the impregnation of a liquid with carbon dioxide (CO2) under pressure. CO2 is added to beverages to make them effervescent. Examples of carbonated beverages include lemonade and sparkling mineral waters.

Acid formed when CO2 is dissolved in water. Forms various salts (carbonates and bicarbonates), some of which are important in food processing.

A winemaking process in which whole grapes are macerated under a carbon dioxide atmosphere before alcoholic fermentation; it is used in manufacture of Beaujolais and similar wines. Carbonic maceration enhances the fruity character of the wine aroma.

Organic compounds which contain the CO radical, including aldehydes and ketones. Many are important flavour compounds and aroma compounds in foods.

EC 3.1.1.1. Hydrolyse carboxylic esters to alcohols and carboxylates. Useful for removing acetyl groups from hemicelluloses to form easily fermentable carbohydrate substrates, and for modifying the gelation properties and other rheological properties of heteropolysaccharides. Also involved in changes in the aroma and flavour of wines and other alcoholic beverages.

Organic acids characterized by presence of the COOH group.

Water-soluble cellulose ether obtained by chemical modification. Widely used in food stabilizers, thickeners or binding agents in a variety of foods including ice cream, puddings, batters and icings. Also known by the abbreviation CMC.

Alternative term for carboxypeptidases.

EC 3.4.16-3.4.18. Exoproteinases that hydrolyse peptide bonds and remove amino acids one at a time from protein chains, working from the carboxyl terminus. Useful for production of protein hydrolysates and for modifying the flavour of foods, e.g. dairy products.

Alternative term for offal.

Dead bodies of animals and birds, especially those prepared for cutting up as meat. The term is used by butchers to describe animals' and birds' bodies after removal of the heads, limbs, hides (or feathers in birds) and offal; these types of carcasses are also called dressed carcasses. Bird carcasses are usually chilled whole, whilst animal carcasses are usually split longitudinally into sides before chilling. Many countries operate carcass classification schemes, which are designed to categorize carcasses with common characteristics such as carcass weight, fatness (fat class) and conformation. Usually, carcass classification schemes discriminate against very fat and very lean carcasses.

Processes leading to the formation of cancer (tumours).

A measure of the relative activity of carcinogens.

Analyses, including the Ames test, to determine the carcinogenicity of suspected carcinogens. Also applied to other chemical compounds as part of routine safety evaluation studies. Tests can include the use of animal models, cell cultures or microorganisms.

Substances that are able to induce carcinogenesis, encompassing direct-acting agents that possess genotoxicity and indirect-acting procarcinogens that require activation by cell metabolic pathways. Food sources of carcinogens are widespread, and include heterocyclic amines formed in meat during cooking, nitrosamines in nitrite-treated meat products, urethane in fermented foods and alcoholic beverages, and agaritine in mushrooms.

Green spice pods containing numerous aromatic seeds produced by Elettaria cardamomom, a shrub belonging to the ginger family. Pods and seeds are used extensively in flavourings for both sweet and savoury dishes, particularly in Indian and Middle Eastern cuisine. White (bleached) pods are also available.

Rigid, moderately thick material made from paper pulp but heavier than paper. Used widely to make containers, e.g. boxes, for packaging foods.

Congenital and acquired diseases of the heart or blood vessels including coronary heart diseases and stroke. Many risk factors for cardiovascular diseases have been identified, including lifestyle (smoking, lack of physical exercise), diseases (obesity, hyperlipaemia) and diet. Cardiovascular risk may be modified by lowering intake of fats, modulating dietary fatty acids composition and increasing consumption of whole grains, dietary fibre and fruits and vegetables.

Common name for Cynara cardunculus. The plant is of Mediterranean origin and has many similarities to globe artichokes, to which it is related. Cultivated mainly for the fleshy leaf stalks, which can be blanched like celery, or used in dishes such as salads and stews. Roots can also be cooked and used as a vegetable, while extracts from the dried flowers are used as vegetable rennets in cheese-making.

The common name for any of the four North American species of large deer in the genus Rangifer within the Cervidae family. Caribou are hunted for their meat. Caribou meat is a traditional food for some ethnic groups, e.g. the Baffin Inuit in the Canadian Arctic. Caribou meat is referred to as venison.

Alternative term for dental caries.

Water-insoluble aluminium lake of carminic acid (the red pigment obtained from cochineal). Soluble in alkaline media and widely used in natural red colorants for foods and beverages.

Water-soluble red pigment obtained from dried bodies of cochineal insects (Coccus cacti). Colour is orange to red, depending on pH. Carmine is the insoluble aluminium lake of carminic acid.

Bluish-red artificial azo dyes used in confectionery, soft drinks, ice cream and canned fruits. Also known as azorubine.

Yellowish wax exuded by the leaves of the north-eastern Brazilian fan palm. Primarily composed of carnaubic acid, which is also found in many plant oils and resins. Used to prepare coatings for foods e.g. fruits or sugar confectionery, decreasing moisture loss and giving an attractive, shiny appearance. Also used to improve the barrier properties of packaging films.

Amino acid found in muscle, liver and other tissues. Also known as vitamin B7 or vitamin Bt. Required for the transport of fatty acids into mitochondria for oxidation. Rich dietary sources include meat and dairy products.

Genus of Gram positive, aerobic, rod-shaped lactic acid bacteria of the family Lactobacillaceae. Species may be responsible for spoilage of vacuum packaged meat (Carnobacterium divergens), fish (C. piscicola) and chicken meat (C. mobile).

Dipeptide (β-alanylhistidine) which occurs in meat and fish and displays antioxidative activity.

Seeds from the leguminous Mediterranean tree Ceritonia siliqua. Seeds are encased in a sweetish pulp within the carob pods. They are used as the source of carob gums or can be ground and used as baking flour. Also known as locust beans.

Alternative term for locust bean gums, obtained from carob beans.

Pods from the carob tree (Ceritonia siliqua), containing seeds (carob beans) encased in a soft, sticky pulp. The pulp is high in sugar and has a taste similar to chocolate. Powdered pulp is marketed as a chocolate substitute and is also used in the manufacture of beverages and syrups.

Long chain unsaturated hydrocarbons with provitamin A activity found in green and yellow plant foods such as carrots, sweet potatoes, green leafy vegetables and yellow fruits. Carotenes (which include α-carotene and β-carotene) are the simplest of the carotenoids and are cleaved in vivo, generating two molecules of vitamin A.

Pigments of the polyenoic terpenoids class, which are present in a wide range of plant foods and animal foods. Impart a yellow, orange, red or purple colour to foods, and may be used as food color-ants. Many have antioxidative activity; some have vitamin A activity.

A group of omnivorous freshwater fish from the family Cyprinidae which are widely distributed across Europe and Asia. Several species of carp are valued as food fish; the major commercially important species are common carp (Cyprinus carpio), crucian carp (Carassius carassius), grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), silver carp (Hypothalmicthys molitrix) and big head carp (H. nobilis). Commonly cultured (especially C. carpio), and marketed and processed in a variety of ways.

Any of several species of edible bivalve molluscs in the genera Tapes and Venerupis, most of which occur along the Atlantic coasts of Europe and North America. Commonly consumed species include T. decussatus, T. virginea, T. aureus and T. japonica. Also known as clovis.

Thermoreversible gels formed from κ- and Ț-carrageenans. κ-Carrageenan gels are strong and brittle, whereas those from Ț-carrageenans are softer and more cohesive. Applications include as ingredients in dairy products, flans, puddings and low calorie jams and jellies.

Gums extracted from red seaweeds (mainly Chondrus crispus and Gigartina stellata). Used as stabilizers, thickeners and emulsifiers in a wide range of foods including milk beverages, processed cheese, ice cream, other dairy products, desserts and ready to feed infant formulas. Can be classified into κ-, Ț- and Ȝ-carrageenans on the basis of their solubility and gelation properties. Form thermoreversible carrageenan gels, which are also used widely in the food industry.

Deep fried carrot slices, typically consumed as snack foods. A lactic acid fermentation stage may be incorporated into the manufacture process in order to decrease level of reducing sugars.

Juices extracted from carrots (Daucus carota). Rich in vitamins, especially vitamin A, and minerals.

Pulps prepared from carrots. Used in the manufacture of a range of products, including infant foods, confectionery and pulpy fruit juices. Carrot pulp wastes remaining after juice extraction can be utilized as a source of carotenoids.

Root vegetables from the umbelliferous plant Daucus carota. The most important and well known vegetable umbellifer cultivated worldwide. Wild forms of the species are also abundant. Cultivated roots are typically orange in colour and the best-known plant source of provitamin A carotenoids. Widely consumed as salad vegetables or cooked vegetables. In addition, a large proportion of the crop is further processed by canning, drying or freezing. Also used to make products such as carrot chips, carrot cakes and carrot juices.

A natural red pigment obtained from safflowers (Carthamus tinctorius). Can be used in natural food colorants, but stability is a problem due to susceptibility to discoloration in aqueous solutions.

Thin (usually about 0.25-1.00 mm thick), rigid or semi-rigid material made from one or more layers of fibrous celluloses. Used widely to make cartons.

Process of packaging items such as foods or beverages in cartons.

Lightweight containers made from carton-board. Usually delivered to the user in the form of flattened, pre-cut and pre-creased carton blanks.

Phenolic monoterpenoid which is one of the flavour compounds in many herbs and spices, especially thyme and oregano. Has antioxidative activity and antimicrobial activity.

Monterpene alcohol which is one of the flavour compounds found in essential oils of herbs and spices, including mint, caraway and dill, and citrus peel. Formed by conversion of limonene.

Monocyclic terpenoid ketone which is one of flavour compounds in many herbs and the spices, especially caraway and dill. Used in antisprouting agents for stored potatoes.

American tree species. Source of hickory nuts. Pecan nuts come from C. illinoensis.

Sesquiterpene hydrocarbon which is one of the flavour compounds present in a wide range of herbs, spices and fruits.

Gel formed by coagulation of milk by acids or rennets, e.g. during cheesemaking.

Conglomerate of individual casein fractions found in milk. κ-Casein is located on the surface of the micelles. Structure and stability of micelles are related to their calcium content.

Liquid remaining after precipitation of casein by the action of acids or rennets. Also called whey.

Salts formed by acid precipitation of casein from milk followed by neutralization and drying. Some caseinates, including potassium, sodium and calcium caseinate are widely used as food ingredients due to their nutritional and functional properties. Uses include binding agents, emulsifiers, whipping agents and protein supplements in foods.

Large peptides constituting the C-terminal fragment of κ-casein, formed by hydrolysis with proteinases.

Edible fleshy fruits of the cashew tree (Anacardium occidentale). Although this tropical tree is grown primarily for its crop of cashew nuts, the cashew apple is also of commercial interest. The acidic-tasting apple-like fruits are rich in vitamin C and can be eaten raw or processed into jams, jellies and ices. They are also fermented to produce juices and liqueurs.

Kidney-shaped edible nuts from the cashew tree (Anacardium occidentale). The nuts protrude from the end of edible fleshy receptacles known as cashew apples and are a highly prized commodity on the world market. They are usually consumed roasted or used in confectionery products.

Items used to give processed meat products a uniform or characteristic shape, to hold comminuted products together during further processing and to protect meat products. Casings are most commonly used as forms and containers for sausages; these types of casings are specifically known as sausage casings. There are two major types of casings: natural and manufactured. Natural casings are derived almost exclusively from the gastrointestinal tract of cattle, sheep and swine. Natural casings are highly permeable to moisture and smoke; moreover, they shrink and thereby remain in close contact with the surface of a meat product as it loses water. Most natural casings are digestible and can be eaten. There are four major classes of manufactured casings, namely cellulose, in-edible collagen, edible collagen and plastic. Strength, shrinkage and permeability characteristics differ between the different types of casings, providing a range of products suitable for the preparation of many different types of meat products.

Starchy tubers produced by the tropical plant Cassava esculenta (syn. ultissima), also known as manioc. An important staple food in many tropical regions, cassava tubers are a good source of carbohydrate and vitamin C, but low in protein, minerals and other vitamins. Tubers are the source of tapioca starch, while the leaves can be eaten as a vegetable in soups and stews. Fresh cassava roots and leaves (particularly those from bitter cultivars) contain the cyanogenic glycosides, linamarin and lotaustralin, and must therefore be detoxified prior to consumption in order to prevent cyanide poisoning. Detoxification is achieved by conventional grating, washing and cooking methods, or by fermentation into a variety of products including gari, fufu, attieke and tape ketela.

Product made, mainly in tropical countries, by peeling cassava tubers soon after harvesting, slicing and drying the slices by solar drying. This drying process is effective in reducing total cyanide levels in cassava, which contains the cyanogenic glycosides linamarin and lotaustralin, thus decreasing the risks of poisoning.

Starch isolated from the cassava tuber. Also called tapioca.

Meals that are slow cooked, usually in ovens, in lidded containers. Casseroles are made with meat and/or vegetables cooked in stocks or sauces.

Spices obtained from the evergreen laurel tree, Cinnamonum cassia, and some other Cinnamonum species. Related to cinnamon, but less delicately flavoured. Cassia bark is often used as a substitute for cinnamon, while leaves can be used in flavourings similar to bay leaves, and buds are used in a similar manner to cloves. Cassia oil is used in cola beverages.

Galactomannan gums extracted from Cassia seeds. Swell in water and form high viscosity colloids on boiling. Structure and chemical properties have been likened those of carob gums and guar gums. Although used mainly in pet foods, cas-sia gums have potential for use as thickeners in a wide range of foods, either alone or in combination with other colloids.

Seeds produced by leguminous plants of the genus Cassia, particularly C. tora and C. obtusifolia. Source of cassia gums.

Sweet blackcurrants flavoured liqueurs manufactured in France.

High-protein oilseeds from the castor plant, Ricinus communis, from which castor oils are extracted. Seeds also contain a toxic albumin (ricin) and a highly allergenic protein fraction, which limit its food use after oil extraction. Fermented castor bean meal is used in a number of Nigerian foods as a spice and can also serve as the basis of a condiment, known as ogiri.

Yellow-brown viscous oils derived from castor beans (Ricinius communis). Rich in ricinoleic acid, which is released by hydrolysis in the small intestine when the oils are ingested, giving them a purgative action. Also used industrially in the manufacture of chemicals and resins.

EC 1.11.1.6. Break down H2O2 to water and O2. Used for removing the H2O2 added to coldsterilized milk, improving the baking properties of dough and improving the flavour of fermented whey. Exhibit antioxidative activity and play an important role in preventing oxidation of lipids in meat. In conjunction with D-amino-acid oxidases, catalases can be used for production of α-ketoacids, which are gaining importance as nutraceuticals. The enzymes also protect microorganisms, including several foodborne pathogens, against various environmental stresses.

Substances that promote a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy, but which are not consumed or altered during the reaction.

Catechol which occurs in tea and many other foods and beverages. Catechins are thought to have beneficial effects on health, because of their apparent antimicrobial activity, antioxidative activity and anticancer properties.

EC 1.10.3.1. A group of copper proteins that act on catechol and a variety of substituted catechols. Also known as diphenol oxidases, phenolases, polyphenol oxidases and tyrosinases, these enzymes also catalyse the reaction of monophenol monooxygenases (EC 1.14.18.1) under certain conditions. Involved in enzymic browning in fruits, vegetables and cereal grains.

Phenolic biogenic amines which occur in tissues of plants and animals. Some, e.g. adrenaline and noradrenaline, act as hormones and high preslaughter levels of these compounds (as a result of stress) may be associated with poor meat quality. Aerobic oxidation of catecholamines in the presence of catechol oxidases results in formation of melanins, and hence browning of plant foods.

Flavan-3-ols which are present in a wide range of foods of plant origin. May be polymerized to form tannins by the action of polyphenol oxidases (catechol oxidases). Catechols may contribute to the antioxidative activity and health benefits of plant-derived phenols.

Provision of foods and beverages in a commercial or institutional setting, or at a function. Occasionally accommodation is provided also. Includes services provided by hotels, restaurants, canteens and hospital kitchens. Also encompasses foods service.

Any of a group of 31 families of scaleless fish, often with whisker-like projections around the mouth (barbels) and posterior spines in dorsal and pectoral fins. Most catfish occur in freshwater, and many species around the world are valued as food fish. Flesh tends to be firm with a mild flavour. Commonly consumed catfish include channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), which are cultured in large numbers in the USA, Clarius spp., which are important food fish in African countries, and Silurus spp., found in Asian countries.

Enzymes important in meat tenderization during ageing and deterioration of fish proteins gels, with subsequent effects on sensory properties. Also exhibit proteolytic activity in dairy products.

Positively charged particles that have lost one or more electrons. Cations migrate towards negatively charged electrodes (cathodes).

Common name for Nepeta cataria and related species. Used for flavouring herb tea and other beverages.

Synonym for ketchups. Originally a spicy pickled fish condiment, nowadays the term refers to various thick piquant sauces containing sugar, spices, vinegar, and other ingredients such as tomatoes, mushrooms, nuts or fruits. Tomato ketchups are one of the most well known types of catsup and are a popular accompaniment for French fries, burgers and many other foods.

Large ruminant mammals with cloven hooves and often with horns, from the family Bovidae. Worldwide, there are over 1000 cattle breeds, of which 250 are major breeds. Cattle fall into two groups, those developed from Bos indicus (Indian cattle or zebus) and those, mainly European breeds, developed from Bos taurus. Cattle are mainly domesticated for meat (beef) and milk production. Different gender and age groups of cattle are known as bulls (adult entire males), steers (adult castrated males), cows (adult females), heifers (in general, young sexually mature females to the end of their first lactation) and calves (in general, sexually immature animals which are less than 8 months old).

Kidneys from cattle, part of edible offal. They are reddish brown in colour and composed of 15-25 lobes, which are partially fused together. Left cattle kidneys have a three-sided shape, whilst right kidneys are elliptical in shape. Kidneys from mature cattle tend to have a stronger flavour and are tougher than calf kidneys; they need to be cooked slowly using moist heat and are often used in steak and kidney mixtures. In contrast, calf kidneys are tender, have a delicate flavour, and can be cooked by grilling or sauteing.

Livers from cattle, part of edible offal. In particular, calf livers are valued for their smooth texture and delicate flavour; they are often considered a delicacy. Livers from milk-fed calves are very pale in colour. Calf livers are usually cooked by grilling or sauteing, but may also be braised slowly or roasted whole.

Alternative term for beef.

Alternative term for beef.

Alternative term for wild garlic.

Genus of seaweeds commonly found in tropical and subtropical waters around Japan, Indonesia, China, the Philippines and Taiwan. Some Caulerpa species are edible; traditionally utilized as a fresh salad accompaniment to Asian dishes. C. lentillifera is one of the most favoured species due to its soft and succulent texture, while in Thailand, C. racemosa is commonly sold for use in spicy sauces; both these species are cultured.

Common name for Brassica oleracea var. botrytis. A vegetable characterized by large edible flowerheads (curds), composed of a compact mass of tiny, underdeveloped florets, which are usually cream or white in colour, but may also be shades of green or purple. Can be eaten raw in salads, cooked in a number of ways or used in pickles. A good source of vitamin C. Closely related to broccoli.

Salted roes (eggs) from various species of sturgeon; prepared by a special process involving washing, salting and ripening. Consumed as a table delicacy, with a highly esteemed flavour and texture. Black caviar from the beluga sturgeon is one of the most highly prized and sought after types of caviar. Marketed in small containers or in barrels. Grainy caviar (where roe are easily separated) and pressed caviar (where roe is pressed to remove excess liquid) are common forms of caviar. Sometimes spelt caviare.

Roes (eggs) from fish other than sturgeon, which are prepared and packaged in a similar way to caviar. Principal fish species used are bream, carp, coalfish, cod, herring, mullet, pike and tuna. The designation is usually preceded by the name of the fish (e.g. cod caviar) and the name of the country of origin is often included.

Alternative spelling for caviar.

Pungent powder made from the dried pods of chillies (Capiscum frutescens) including the seeds. Usually deep orange in colour. Used in small quantities as a spice, traditionally in Mexican and Italian cooking, but also in dishes from other regions.

Alternative term for chlormequat.

Abbreviation for complementary DNA. Single stranded DNA formed from an mRNA template by reverse transcriptases. Radiolabelled cDNA can be used as a probe in genetic techniques.

Spanish soft fresh cheese made from cow milk. Acidic, slightly bitter flavour, similar to that of yoghurt.

Name used for some types of pine nuts, particularly those obtained from the Siberian pine.

Cephalosporin antibiotic active against most Gram negative enteric bacteria, particularly Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Used to treat mastitis in cattle and bacterial infections of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts in cattle and swine. Rapidly depletes in animal tissues following administration.

Cephalosporin antibiotic active against both Gram positive bacteria and Gram negative bacteria. Used to treat bacterial infections in cattle and swine. Rapidly depletes in animal tissues following administration. Use at the approved dosage and route is unlikely to result in residues exceeding the maximum residue limit in milk and edible tissues; no milk withdrawal periods are required and residues are not hazardous to industrial cheese and yoghurt starters.

Common name for Apium graveolens var. rapaceum. A variety of celery grown for its globose, edible root rather than the stalk and leaves. The white fleshed root is usually consumed cooked and has a similar flavour to celery. Also known as turnip rooted celery.

Common name for Apium graveolens var. dulce. A major leafy vegetable of the umbellifer family with many food uses. Celery petioles (leaf stalks) can be eaten raw or cooked and used to impart flavour and texture to dishes such as stews and soups. Their distinctive flavour is due to the presence to terpenes and phthalides, which are also found in celeriac. Celery seeds and leaves are used as flavourings.

Small brown aromatic seeds of Apium graveolens, with a similar flavour to celery petioles. Both seeds and seed oils can be used to flavour stews and salads. Ground seeds can also be mixed with salt to form celery seasonings.

Numbers of cells present in a given sample quantity.

In vitro growth or maintenance of cells in or on a medium.

Established collections of cells which can be cultured indefinitely and which usually have specific properties which can be exploited in scientific research studies.

Structures that are external to the cytoplasmic membranes of plant, fungal, algal and bacterial cells. Maintain cell shape and rigidity and may protect cells from mechanical damage, osmotic lysis and antibiotics.

Alternative term for β-glucosidases.

Alternative term for cellulose 1,4-β-cellobiosidases.

Reducing sugar composed of two molecules of glucose linked via a β-1,4-glycosidic bond. Although free cellobiose is not found in nature, it is the monomer unit for celluloses, one of the most abundant substances in nature. Cellobiose may be prepared from celluloses by hydrolysis with cellulases.

Thin, transparent material made from celluloses. Used as a wrapping for foods to protect against contamination and to preserve freshness.

EC 3.2.1.4. Catalyse the endohydrolysis of 1,4-β-D-glucosidic linkages in celluloses, lichenin and cereal β-D-glucans. Produced commercially from a number of fungi and bacteria. These enzymes have many applications in the food industry, e.g. processing of fruits and vegetables and their juices, brewing, winemaking, improving the shelf life of bakery products, enhancing the quality of soy protein hydrolysates and hydrolysis of celluloses prior to ethanolic fermentation.

Enzymes that act synergistically to hydrolyse celluloses or chemically modified cellulose polymers. These enzymes are traditionally classified into three groups, cellulose 1,4-β- cellobiosidases, cellulases and β-glucosidases. True cellulase systems, produced by a number of fungi, are able to hydrolyse crystalline cellulose completely, while low-value cellulase systems can only hydrolyse amorphous cellulose. Cellulolytic enzymes can hydrolyse cellulose waste materials prior to ethanolic fermentation and, in conjunction with pectic enzymes, represent an alternative to chemical peeling of fruits and vegetables.

Genus of Gram variable, aerobic or facultatively anaerobic bacteria of the family Corynebacteriaceae. Occur in soil. Capable of hydrolysing celluloses.

EC 3.2.1.91. Hydrolyse 1,4-β-D-glucosidic linkages in celluloses and cellotetraose, releasing cellobiose from the non-reducing ends of the chains. In general, these enzymes can hydrolyse amorphous celluloses by themselves but only hydrolyse crystalline celluloses in the presence of cellulases.

Tough polymer made by acetylation of celluloses. Used as the basis of artificial fibres and plastics, and in photographic film and magnetic tapes.

Derivatives in which some or all of the hydroxyl groups of celluloses are involved in ether linkages. Ethylcelluose, methylcellulose and carboxymethylcellulose are examples which are used as food additives.

Transparent plastic packaging films made from celluloses. Include cellulose acetate films and cellophane (regenerated cellulose).

Sausage casings made of celluloses, which must be removed before sausages are eaten. Various sources of cellulose are used, including cotton linters, which are first dissolved and then regenerated to produce casings. Benefits of use include: ease of use; the variety of available sizes; uniformity of size; stretch and shrinkage properties which mimic those of natural casings; and greater strength and lower microbial levels than natural sausage casings. To add artificial colour to sausage surfaces, the inner surface of the casings may be coated with an edible, water soluble dye, which transfers to the sausage surface. Very strong casings can be produced by extruding cellulose onto a paper base material; these casings are used to prepare large sausages, such as bologna. Cellulose casings, removed before retail, are also used to prepare skinless sausages.

Class of β-D-(1ĺ4) glucans which are indigestible polysaccharides comprising the majority of plant cell wall material. Occur in large quantities in foods, and comprise much of the dietary fibre in plant foods. Derivatives such as modified celluloses and microcrystalline celluloses are used as food additives.

High molecular weight multienzyme cellulolytic complexes produced by Clostridium thermocellum and other bacteria. They consist of a number of enzymes attached to a scaffolding protein, which contains a cellulose binding domain and several cohesin domains which interact with complementary dockerin domains of the catalytic subunits, integrating them into the complex.

Genus of Gram negative bacteria found in soil. Produce cellulolytic enzymes which can be used in production of saccharides with potential for food use.

Tissues associated with that part of the nervous system in vertebrates which includes the brain, cranial nerves and spinal cord. Due to concerns about a possible link between variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) in humans and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in cattle, controls are in place in abattoirs and slaughterhouses to exclude BSE risk materials, such as central nervous system tissues, from the human food chain. The risk materials are considered a source of BSE prions, consumption of which could potentially result in the development of CJD. In addition, techniques have been developed to screen meat and meat products for the presence of central nervous system material.

Machines with rapidly rotating containers used to separate two liquids, solids from a liquid, or a liquid from a gas. In the food industry, these separators are used for clarification of beer and fermentation broths, during sugar processing to separate sugar crystals from syrups, and during food hygiene practices (e.g. cleaning in place).

Process in which liquids are separated from solids, or heterogeneous liquids are separated, on the basis of differences in density using machines (centrifuges) with rapidly rotating drums.

Machines with rapidly rotating drums used to separate liquids from solids or heterogeneous liquids on the basis of differences in density.

Mixtures of glycerophospholipids which can be fractionated into phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylinositol.

Common name for an advanced group of molluscs (class Cephalopoda) characterized by absent or reduced internal shells and heads surrounded octopus and by tentacles. Includes cuttlefish, squid; many species are commercially important food species.

Group of semisynthetic β-lactam antibiotics derived from the natural antibiotic cephalosporin C. Have a similar mode of action to penicillins, but tend to have a broader spectrum of action and wider safety margin. Examples commonly used in treatment of farm animals include cephapirin, cephradine and ceftiofur.

Obselete genus of fungi of the class Hyphomycetes, some species of which are now classified in the genus Acremonium.

Cephalosporin antibiotic, commonly used in the form of benzathine or sodium salts for treatment of mastitis in cows; also used for treatment of endometritis in cattle, sheep, goats and swine. Rapidly metabolizes in animals following intramuscular administration.

Employed in ultrafiltration and microfiltration systems, ceramic membranes may be of the following types: flat, hollow fibre or open tubular. These membranes possess a high degree of resistance to chemical and abrasion degradation, and tolerate a wide range of pH and temperature ranges. A wide variety of applications includes those relating to biotechnology and pharmaceuticals, isolation and concentration of enzymes, standardization of the protein content of milk, extraction of proteins from whey, preparation of quarg and fresh cream cheese by ultrafiltration, clarification of fruit juices, microfiltration of alcoholic beverages, and concentration of whole eggs and egg whites.

Articles made of clay that is permanently hardened by heat. Ceramic materials are non-metallic, inorganic compounds - primarily compounds of oxygen, but also compounds of carbon, nitrogen, boron or silicon. Problems have been found relating to migration of heavy metals, particularly cadmium and lead, from ceramic containers or containers with ceramic glazes into foods with which they are in contact.

Generic term for a class of sphingolipids; N-acyl derivatives of a long chain base, e.g. sphingosine. Ceramides are present in a wide range of foods, and may be of importance for human health.

Genus of fungi of the class Plectomycetes. Includes several plant pathogens, e.g. Ceratocystis fimbriata and C. paradoxa which cause black rot of sweet potatoes and pineapples, respectively.

Processed cereal grains which are formed into bars and often contain other ingredients such as dried fruits and nuts.

Protective outer layer of the seeds of edible members of the grass family which is separated from the kernel during milling. Often added to foods as a source of dietary fibre.

Secondary products of cereal processing, e.g. bran and germ removed during milling of cereals to produce refined flour.

Flour produced by milling of cereals.

Generic term for foods which have been formulated using cereals as their main ingredient.

Proteins found in cereal grains, which may be classed as biologically active enzymes or biologically inactive storage proteins. Storage proteins make up approximately 80% of total cereal proteins and are often used for varietal classification.

Non-distilled alcoholic beverages made by fermentation of saccharified mashes made from cereals. Examples of cereal wines include sake and other rice wines.

Plants and seeds from monocotyledonous plants of the grass family. The edible, starchy seeds are suitable for food use and are processed to make a wide range of products.

Lipids of the galactosides class which occur in brain and nervous tissues.

Smoked, uncooked, mildly seasoned sausages made from chopped pork or a mixture of pork and beef. There are two kinds, namely: soft cervelat, a semi-dry sausage; and dry cervelat, which is dried slowly to a hard texture. Many countries make cervelat. Varieties manufactured include: Goteborg cervelat from Sweden; Gothaer cervelat from Germany; and Landjaeger cervelat from Switzerland. Cervelat may also be known as summer sausages.

Parasitic tapeworms of the class Cestoda. Includes species of the genera Diphyllobothrium, Echinococcus and Taenia.

Order of mammals including whales, dolphins and porpoises.

Trade name for the cationic detergent disinfectant cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (cetrimide).

Antimicrobial agent used in disinfectants for cleaning areas such as food processing equipment.

Cationic detergent disinfectant (cetrimide) with the trade name Cetavlon.

Highly spiced meat products, traditionally produced in the former Yugoslavia. They are sometimes considered to be fresh sausages without casings. They are made from beef mince and/or pork mince mixed with fresh herbs; the mixture is formed into logs. Cevapcici are usually cooked by grilling and served with chutney or hot relish and toast.

Product prepared by marinating raw fish fillets or raw fish mince in lime juices or lemon juices with olive oils, spices, and sometimes onions, green peppers or tomatoes. Citric acid in the juices causes denaturation of the fish proteins, increasing flesh firmness. Eaten usually as an appetizer particularly in Central and South America. Consumption has been associated with outbreaks of food poisoning or anisakiasis where infected fish or unhygienic food preparation practices have been used. Alternative spellings include seviche and cebiche.

Common name for Basella rubra (syn. B. alba). Leaves and stems contain high levels of carotenoids and ascorbic acid and are used as vegetables in a similar manner to spinach. Can also be used in thickeners, while fruits are a source of natural colorants. Also known as Malabar night-shade.

One of the major toxic glycoalkaloids found in potatoes.

Genus of fungi of the class Sordariomycetes. Occur in soil, paper and textiles. Most species are strongly cellulolytic. Some species (e.g. Chaetomium globosum) are used in the industrial production of enzymes (e.g. cellulases).

Spiced milky tea drink which originated in India but is becoming a popular beverage worldwide. Made from black tea to which is added milk, a mixture of spices such as cardamom, cinnamon, ginger, cloves and pepper, and a sweetener such as sugar. Also available are spice mixes for use when preparing chai, and chai mixes to which hot water is added for making the beverage.

Curd formed during preparation of the Indian dessert, shrikhand, made by straining dahi through a cloth to remove whey.

Class of minor flavonoids, biochemically related to flavanones, and dihydrochalcones. Native chalcone glycosides are easily transformed to flavanone glycosides, and are rarely extracted from foods in the chalcone form per se. Dietary sources of chalcone compounds include tomato skins, hops and liquorice.

Alternative term for halva.

Herb obtained from Anthemis nobilis (syn. Chamaemelum nobile). The plant is a source of essential oils used to flavour liqueurs, other beverages and confectionery. Flowers are used to make herb tea. Synonym for camomile.

The specific winemaking process used for manufacture of champagne, involving in-bottle secondary fermentation under defined conditions.

French word for edible fungi. Typically used to refer to cultivated button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus).

A freshwater catfish species (Ictalurus punctatus) which occurs in rivers and streams in North America. Popular in the USA where it is farmed and marketed fresh, smoked and frozen.

Alternative term for Cantharellus.

Flat, unleavened disc-shaped breads originating from northern India made with wheat flour, water and salt, and baked on a griddle.

Proteins which assist in the correct processing, particularly non-covalent assembly, of other proteins. As well as their role in microbial pathogenicity, chaperones and their subclass chaperonins are of interest in biotechnology for the production of correctly folded recombinant proteins.

Addition of sugar to grape musts to increase alcohol content in the resulting wines. Legal in some winemaking countries, prohibited in others.

Any of several trout-like fish species belonging to the genus Salvelinus within the family Salmonidae. Char species include S. alpinus (Arctic char) S. fontinalis (brook trout) and S. namaycush (lake trout). Flesh of most species is highly regarded. Usually marketed fresh or frozen.

Amorphous, usually impure, form of carbon produced by heating wood or other organic material in the absence of air. Can be used in absorbents (activated carbon), as a cooking fuel which produces a distinctive flavour, e.g. in barbecued foods, or in fermentation technology.

Varieties of cold cooked meats, especially pork products, which are cured, smoked or processed. They include ham, pates and sausages. Shops in which these products are produced or sold are known as charcuteries.

Early flowering annual weed (Brassica kaber or Sinapis arvensis) native to Europe and North America, seeds of which are used to make a poor quality mustard.

Intermediate moisture (water activity = 0.5- 0.7), dried meat products, mainly produced in South America. In Brazil, most charqui is prepared from beef, but it is also made from mutton and llama meat. In Peru, it is also made from alpaca meat. Strips of meat are cut length-wise, salted and then pressed before air drying. In its finished form, charqui is in flat, slightly flaky, thin sheets. Traditional charqui is made without addition of nitrites or nitrates; nevertheless, microbial counts decrease during processing and storage. When good quality raw materials and appropriate handling conditions are used for charqui production, the final product has low microbial counts. Charqui-type products include jerky.

Squashes obtained from the tropical plant Sechium edule, also known as mirliton. Similar in shape to a large pear, usually furrowed, and containing a single seed. Chayote fruit are used in a variety of savoury and dessert dishes throughout South America and in Creole cooking. They are low in calories and sodium and a good source of trace elements. Tubers, shoots and leaves are also edible.

Semi-hard cow milk cheese originally made in England but now made all over the world. Natural colour ranges from white to pale yellow, but some cheeses have colorants added to form a more orange colour. Generally matured for 9-24 months, the flavour getting sharper with time.

Process used in manufacture of scalded cheese. Pressed curd is cut into pieces which are covered and left for 6-10 hours at 15-20°C during which the curd becomes elastic and develops a yellow colour and characteristic flavour.

Dairy products made by separating the solid component of milk (curd) from the liquid part (whey). Made mainly from cow milk, but also from milk of many other mammals, commonly goats, ewes and buffaloes. An important part of the diet worldwide due to its nutritional properties and ease of preparation.

Alternative term for cheese substitutes.

Protein (casein) gel formed by coagulation of milk, e.g. during cheesemaking. Other milk proteins are retained in the liquid portion (whey).

Alternative term for cheesemaking.

Milk used as the starting material in cheesemaking. Also called cheesemaking milk.

Cheese flavoured white sauces used mainly for coating foods, e.g. macaroni, cauliflowers or fish. Can be made at home, or purchased in ready to use format or as sauce mixes. Dishes that incorporate a cheese sauce are often known as mornay, e.g. eggs mornay or salmon mornay.

Presliced cheese of various types and thicknesses packaged for retail sale.

Spreadable product made from cheese to which other milk products and possibly emulsifiers have been added.

Microbial cultures inoculated into milk to produce acidity by fermentation during manufacture of cheese. Commercial starter preparations are available in liquid form, or as freeze-dried or deep-frozen powders or granules. Composition of the culture is varied according to the type of cheese being made.

Artificial alternative to natural cheese.

Specific types of cheese.

By-product of cheesemaking formed along with curd during coagulation of milk. Rich in milk proteins including α-lactalbumin and β- lactoglobulin. Whey is produced in large amounts, leading to disposal problems. As well as being utilized as a food ingredient, whey is used as a fermentation substrate and in animal feeds. Also known as lactose-rum or serum.

Beefburgers served in bread rolls with a slice of cheese.

Rich desserts, typically made from curd cheese or cream cheese, additional ingredients including cream, eggs, sugar or flavourings. Sometimes require to be baked. Usually served cold on a biscuit or pastry base and may be topped with fruits.

Process by which cheese is made from milk. Depending on the type of cheese being made, steps include preparation of the cheese milk, coagulation of milk with addition of cheese starters and rennets, draining of whey, pressing, shaping of curd, salting and ripening.

Alternative term for cheese milk.

Substances which form a stable chelate ring with free metal ions and can therefore be used in foods to help control the reaction of trace metals with other food components. They act as sequestrants to prevent metal-catalysed oxidation, unwanted crystal formation and loss of nutritional quality in a variety of foods, and can also be used for the controlled release of metal ions for nutritional purposes or for controlled gelation in thickeners. Examples of EDTA chelating agents include aminetetraaceticacid) and glucono-į-lactone.

Complex sensation obtained from foods, regarded as a component of the sensory properties flavour and mouthfeel. Examples include the burn of capsaicin in chillies, the cooling sensation from menthol and the tingle associated with carbonated beverages.

Measure of the quantity of chemically oxidizable components present in water. Often abbreviated to COD.

Emission of light during a chemical reaction; may be used to measure that reaction.

Adsorption of a gas by a solid in which the molecules of the adsorbed gas are held on the surface of the adsorbing solid by the formation of chemical bonds.

The science of the properties, structure and composition of elements and their compounds, including the transformations which they can undergo and the energy transfer during these reactions.

Apparatus for maintaining a microbial population in the exponential phase of growth by regulating the input of a rate-limiting nutrient, and removal of medium and cells. The concentration of biomass in the culture vessel remains constant and the culture is normally grown at a sub-maximal growth rate. Under steady-state conditions, the relationship between growth rate and concentration of growth-limiting substrate can often be predicted using the Monod equation, while specific growth rate is numerically equal to the dilution rate.

Common name for Annona cherimola, a member of the custard apples family. Native to South America, the edible fruits have a green, scaly surface and soft, yellowish white flesh containing a number of seeds. Fruits have a flavour similar to pineapples and are believed to be one of the finest tasting of the custard apples. They can be eaten raw or used in flavourings for beverages and foods such as ice cream.

Reddish coloured stone fruits from trees of the Prunus genus. Can be classified into two main groups, sweet cherries (P. avium) and sour cherries (P. cerasus). Available fresh, dried, canned, frozen or brined (e.g. Maraschino cherries). Used as ingredients in many food products including cakes, pies, cherry brandy, cherry juices and confectionery.

Liqueurs made from cherries, which may be made with addition of crushed cherry stones to impart a characteristic bitter almonds fla- (ethylenedivour.

Juices extracted from cherries (Prunus cerasus).

Common name for Prunus laurocerasus (syn. Laurocerasus officinalis). Similar in appearance (but unrelated to) bay. Leaves yield essential oils, which are used as flavourings in various types of foods, including desserts and confectionery, and beverages. Leaves contain hydrocyanic acid, which has to be removed from the oils prior to food use.

A Pacific salmon species (Oncorhynchus masou masou) from the northwest Pacific region; also known as masu salmon or Japanese char. Some forms remain in fresh water throughout their lives. A valued food fish in Japan, where its market price tends to be considerably higher than that of other salmon. Normally marketed fresh or frozen; also sold as a fermented sushi-like product.

Popular small-sized tomatoes characterized by an appealing bright colour and good flavour characteristics.

Common name for Anthriscus cerefolium. A delicately flavoured herb which is used in a similar manner to parsley as a garnish or to flavour salads, sauces, and meat and fish dishes.

Edible nuts from trees of the genus Castanea, particularly, C. sativa (Spanish or sweet chestnuts), C. mollissima (Chinese chestnuts) and C. crenata (Japanese chestnuts). Consumed as dessert nuts and also available in canned, pureed or ground forms. Used as an ingredient in confectionery and as an accompaniment to savoury dishes. May also refer to water chestnuts (Trapa natans) and Chinese water chestnuts (Eleocharis dulcis).

Alternative term for goat meat; the term is commonly used in India.

Texture term relating to the extent to which a product needs chewing, or a measure of the effort needed to chew, i.e. its toughness, rubberiness or leatheriness in the mouth.

Sweetened products made from chicle (gum-like exudate consisting of coagulated milky juice from the bark of the evergreen sapodilla tree, Achras zapota) or similar resilient substances (e.g. plasticized rubber or polymers), sugar or similar sweeteners. May also be made using a gum base, softeners and flavourings. Some chewing gums are specially formulated to promote dental health. Also known as chicle gums or gum balls.

Indian style soft Cottage cheese analogue prepared by heating milk (usually cow milk) to nearly boiling, adding acid coagulants while the milk is hot and removing whey by filtration. Used as a base for various Indian sweets, such as rasogolla and sandesh. Also known as channa.

Corn based alcoholic beverages, which may be made by a combined alcoholic fermentation/lactic fermentation process, originating in Central and South America.

Mild-flavoured beans of Cicer arietinum. An important pulse in many regions including the Middle East, Mediterranean and Latin America. Chick peas can be divided into two major types: Desi, which are relatively small and dark in colour and the larger Kabuli which are of Mediterranean and Middle Eastern origin. Contain high amounts of good-quality protein and are also a good source of folates and other B vitamins. They are used in many foods including salads, pasta and dips, and are the basis of humous and falafel. Also known as garbanzo beans and Bengal gram.

Bones from chicken carcasses. During cooking, they darken in colour; this colour change is increased by freezing and thawing prior to cooking. Chicken bones are commonly used to prepare chicken soups or are processed into animal feeds. Hot-water extracts prepared from chicken bones are used in many types of products, especially in flavourings. Exposure of chicken meat containing bone to a dose of ionizing radiation results in the formation of long-lived free radicals which give rise to characteristic electron spin resonance (ESR) signals. The presence of these signals provides clear evidence that chicken meat has been irradiated. Mechanical boning of chicken meat remains a problem to the meat industry, as bone fragments often remain in chicken fillets, escaping manual or X-ray machine detection.

Lower portions of the legs of chickens; they consist of the tibiotarsus and fibula bones with the surrounding chicken meat, cartilage and skin. Colour of meat from chicken drumsticks is darker than that of breast meat, primarily because chicken leg meat contains higher concentration of myoglobin and haemoglobin than breast meat.

Pickles made from chicken gizzards. They are usually prepared from sliced, cooked chicken gizzards, salt and water, and are often mustard oil-or vinegar-based. Other ingredients may include garlic, ginger, cumin, red chilli, aniseed, caraway, turmeric, black pepper, cinnamon or cloves.

Livers from chickens, part of edible offal. They are commonly cooked by sauteing, frying or grilling, or are used to prepare pates or mousses.

Meat from chickens. Different proportions of red and white myofibrils produce light and dark meat in different parts of chicken carcasses. Chicken leg meat is darker than chicken breast meat. Composition of feeds influences flavour and colour of chicken meat. Compared with chicken meat produced in intensive systems, free-range chicken meat tends to have more flavour; however, it is tougher and, in developed countries, more expensive. Chicken meat can be roasted, grilled, poached or casserolled. Chickens are sold whole, or portioned into joints, including chicken breasts, wings, drumsticks and thighs.

Meat mince prepared from chicken meat. It may be prepared specifically from light or dark chicken meat. Mince prepared from light coloured chicken meat has a lower content of saturated fats than mince prepared from dark chicken meat. Also known as ground chicken.

Breaded, coarsely comminuted chicken products, usually reconstituted from deboned chicken meat. Formulations often include spent hen meat and offal. Quality of the product (often prime, choice or economy grades) differs with the proportion of lean meat to offal. Economy-type products tend to include higher proportions of offal and show higher cooking losses than the other types.

Meat patties prepared from chicken mince.

Sausages prepared from chicken meat, often spent hen meat. Commonly they are made from mechanically recovered meat or chicken meat trimmings. They also tend to include chicken skin and the less preferred components of chicken offal, such as gizzards and hearts. Other ingredients may include water, salt, nitrites, pork fat, blood and phosphates.

Skin from chickens. Antimicrobial treatment of chicken skin is commonly used to decrease bacterial contamination (and cross contamination) of chicken carcasses during processing. Most of the fats in chicken meat are associated with the skin; thus, fat content can be lowered by removing the skin. Chicken skin is used as an ingredient in sausages, including chicken sausages. Connective tissue proteins recovered from chicken skin are used to manage the added water in comminuted meat products. After removal of fat and water soluble proteins by aqueous washing, chicken skin is potentially useful as a low-fat ingredient in emulsified meat products. Colour of chicken skin is either white or yellow; density of the yellow pigment is correlated with the amount of xanthophylls in chicken feeds.

Birds of the genus Galus belonging to the order Galliformes. These common domestic fowl are kept virtually worldwide for the production of chicken meat and eggs. Most commercial chicken farms use intensive systems; however, consumer concerns relating to animal welfare have led to an increase in the use of less intensive systems and free-range systems. Different gender and age groups of chickens are known as cocks (adult entire males), capons (adult castrated males), hens (adult females), cockerels and pullets (usually sexually mature young males and females, respectively) and chicks (sexually immature birds with down rather than feathers).

Alternative term for chewing gums.

Common name for Cichorium intybus. Utilized in a number of ways, some cultivars being grown for the root, a powder or extract from which is used as an additive in coffee, making a more bitter beverage. Other cultivars are grown for the leaves, which are used in salads or cooked as a vegetable. Some cultivars, such as witloof, are used to produce blanched leafy growths called chicons, which are eaten raw or cooked. Similar nutritionally to lettuces and en-dives.

Mexican semi hard cheese made from pasteurized cow milk. The interior is pale yellow and the flavour varies from mild to a sharp and Cheddar-like. Chihuahua is a stringy cheese which melts well, making it suitable for use in toppings and fillings.

Alternative term for infant foods.

Nuts of the tree Gevuina avellana, native to Chile and Argentina but grown also in other parts of the world. Closely related to and similar in quality and size to macadamia nuts, but enclosed in a thinner and softer shell. Eaten roasted, but also used as a source of edible oils. Also known by several other names, including Chilean nuts, Chile nuts, gevuina nuts, guevin nuts and neufen nuts.

Perishable foods that can be stored at chilled (refrigerator) temperature for a specified amount of time. Examples include chilled ready meals, pizzas, sandwiches and many dairy products.

Cold cabinets or refrigerators that are capable of rapid cooling/chilling of foods to a few degrees above their freezing point in order to extend shelf life.

Spices obtained from ground chillies. Flavour, capsaicin content and pungency vary according to type of pepper used. May also refer to chilli-based spice mixtures used for making Mexican dishes such as chilli con carne.

Very hot, finely tapering red peppers of any of several cultivated varieties of capsicums (hot peppers). Rich in vitamin A and vitamin C; good sources of vitamin E, potassium and folic acid. Used mainly as a flavouring in cooking. Also known as chilies, chili peppers and chiles.

Process of making foods colder to extend their shelf life, usually undertaken by application of refrigeration.

Disorder of fruits and vegetables induced by low temperatures. May occur in the field, during transit or in retail or domestic refrigerators. Symptoms include surface lesions, water soaking of tissues, water loss, internal discoloration, failure to ripen, and decay. Critical temperature for chilling injury varies with type of crop. Storage life of produce susceptible to chilling injury is short, as refrigeration cannot be used to preserve quality.

Cabbages of the species Brassica pekinensis or B. chinensis. The crinkly, thickly veined leaves are thin and crisp, cream in colour with green tips, and have a mild flavour. Rich in vitamin A, folic acid and potassium. Eaten raw or cooked as a vegetable. Many alternative names, including napa cabbage, celery cabbage, Peking cabbage, wong bok, bok choi, pak choi and Chinese white cabbage.

Common name for Allium tuberosum. Young leaves and flower stalks, with their garlic-like flavour, are used in seasonings. Also known as garlic chives and oriental garlic.

Alternative term for jujubes.

Alternative term for kiwi-fruit.

Fruits produced by Pyrus chinensis, P. ussuriensis, P. bretschneideri or, more generally, P. pyrifolia. Originally cultivated in China. P. pyrifolia is the oriental pear, also referred to as Asian pears, Japanese pears and sand pears.

Fairly hard, dry sausages usually made from pork meat and pork fat. They are similar in texture to pepperoni. Chinese sausages are smoked, slightly sweet and highly seasoned. Varieties include the lop chong. Chinese sausages are often added to stir-fry dishes.

Corms produced at the ends of horizontal rhizomes of Eleocharis dulcis, a plant cultivated in marshy areas or lakes in Asia. Skin is brown-black and similar to that of chestnuts. The white flesh is crunchy and juicy, with a bland flavour. Used widely in Asian dishes, raw or cooked. Contain moderate amounts of starch, sugar, B vitamins, vitamin C and vitamin E, and relatively high amounts of potassium and phosphorus. Available fresh or canned; a powdered form is used as a thickener, similar to corn starch. Also known as matai.

The largest Pacific salmon species (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) found in coastal water and rivers along the Pacific coast of North America, Japan and in the western Arctic; also known as king salmon. High fat, soft-textured flesh is usually red, but some forms are white; the red meat commands a higher price. Marketed fresh, smoked, frozen, and canned in whole (gutted) form, fillets and steaks.

Functional properties relating to the ability of different cultivars or varieties of potatoes to be processed into good quality chips. The most important processing quality parameters for chips are colour, flavour and texture.

Small pieces of food prepared by chopping or cutting, which are then usually fried. Include potato chips (French fries), corn chips and tortilla chips. The term is frequently used to refer specifically to potato chips in the UK and to potato crisps in the USA and continental Europe.

Semi-cured sausages that are a speciality of the Basque region of Spain. They are long, thin, flavourful pork sausages produced in links. Ingredients include garlic. Chistorra are lightly cured and dried for only a few days. In the Basque region, they are usually cooked lightly before eating with eggs or with local bread; however, they are also popular as flavourings for cooked dishes such as bean, lentil or rice casseroles.

Homopolysaccharide, consisting of β(1ĺ4)- linked D-N-acetylglucosamine. Occurs in shells of crustacea and cell walls of fungi, and may be recovered from crustacea shell wastes. Has potential use in functional foods.

EC 3.5.1.41. Catalyse hydrolysis of chitin into chitosan and acetate, via splitting of the N-acetamido groups of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine residues. Chitosan formed is of potential use in the functional foods sector.

EC 3.2.1.14. Randomly hydrolyse Nacetyl-β-D-glucosaminide 1,4-β-linkages in chitin and chitodextrins. Produced by plants, fungi, yeasts and bacteria, these enzymes exhibit antifungal activity and can be used for processing shellfish wastes. Also responsible for haze formation in wines and are major allergens of fruits such as avocados, bananas, chestnuts and kiwifruit, causing latex-fruit syndrome.

Polysaccharide derived from chitin by partial deacetylation with a strong base. Of potential use in functional foods.

EC 3.2.1.132. Hydrolyse β-1,4-linkages between N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and D-glucosamine residues in partly acetylated chitosan. Act only on polymers with 30-60% acetylation. These enzymes can degrade the cell walls of microorganisms that contain glucosamine polymers and can be used for production of chitooligosaccharides, which have a number of potential uses in the food industry.

Term applied to the small intestines, usually from swine, when prepared for use as food. May be used as an ingredient of sausages or pies, or may be eaten raw. Consumption of raw chitterlings has been associated with food poisoning where preparation conditions have not been hygienic. Also called chitlings.

Common name for Allium schoenoprasum. Fresh leaves have a mild onion-like flavour and are chopped and used as a garnishes in soups and salads. Also available as a dried herb. Chinese chives are A. tuberosum.

Genus of unicellular green algae of the family Chlamydomonadaceae. Occur in freshwater habitats and on damp soils. Used as a model for cell and molecular biology research studies.

Antimicrobial compounds that de-compose slowly to release chlorine. May be used in the treatment of water supplies.

Organic chloramine used as an anti-septic and/or disinfectant. Widely used in the food industry to disinfect equipment before processing.

Highly active antibiotic used both in treatment and prophylactically in a range of animals, including poultry, calves, swine and goats. Also used in salmon and trout for the treatment of furunculosis. Potentially genotoxic; use is restricted in many countries and banned in food-producing animals within the EU and USA. Also known as chlormycetin.

Salts of chloric acid commonly used for disinfection purposes. May be formed in drinking water as a result of chlorination. Considered to pose a health risk to humans.

Non-systemic organochlorine insecticide formerly used for control of a wide range of insect pests in crops, soil, industrial and domestic environments, but currently used only rarely. Classified by WHO as moderately toxic (WHO II).

Genus of unicellular green algae of the family Oocystaceae. Occur in fresh water and soils. Species (e.g. Chlorella pyrenoidosa) may be used in the production of single cell proteins, or as food additives owing to their nutritional composition (high protein, vitamin B12 and iron contents) and beneficial physiological effects. Some species are added to cheese, foods (e.g. cakes, cream and rice) to improve their flavour. Due to their high contents of carotenoids, they are used as feed additives for the enhancement of the colour of rainbow trout flesh. C. protothecoides produces lutein, which is used in food colorants for foods such as pasta.

Organophosphorus insecticide and acaricide used for control of soil-based and flying insects in citrus fruits, vegetables, cereals and sugar cane; also used to control ectoparasites on animals. Classified by WHO as highly hazardous (WHO Ia).

Salts of hydrochloric acid. Occur widely in foods and beverages, the most important being common salt, NaCl, which is used in food additives such as flavourings, preservatives and bulking agents.

Organic compounds which contain one or more chlorine atoms. Include pesticides such as HCH, heptachlor, aldrin, endrin, dieldrin, PCB, DDE and DDT. Suspected of being carcinogenic, and characterized by accumulation in the food chain and very slow biodegradation. May contaminate fish and shellfish when discharged into the sea along with industrial effluents.

Insertion of a chlorine atom into a compound, or treatment of an item with chlorine gas (Cl2). For example, chlorine gas can be used in sterilization of water.

Member of the halogens group, chemical symbol Cl. Chlorine and it compounds have strong microbicidal activity and are used in the food industry as disinfectants and sterilizing agents. Chlorine gas is toxic.

Gaseous chlorine compound which is used in oxidizing agents-type disinfectants, used for sterilization of foods and water.

Salts of chlorous acid, used as disinfectants in the food industry.

Plant growth regulator used for treatment of fruits, vegetables and cereals to improve ripening and quality. Can also be used as a herbicide. Also known as CCC, chlorocholine chloride and cycocel.

Alternative term for chlormequat.

Genus of unicellular green microalgae occurring in damp conditions, e.g. in soil. Produce the pigment astaxanthin and other carotenoids which can be used as colorants for foods.

Alternative term for ethephon.

Abbreviated to CFC. Any class of synthetic compound of carbon, hydrogen, chlorine and fluorine used as refrigerants and aerosol propellants. Commercial CFC are nonflammable, non-corrosive, nontoxic and odourless, but are known to be harmful to the ozone layer. The most common commercial CFC, marketed as Freons, are trichlorofluoromethane (CFC-11) and dichlorodifluoromethane (CFC-12).

Colourless, heavy, volatile, toxic liquid. Used as a solvent, fumigant and insecticide. Also known as trichloromethane.

Synonym for caffeoylquinic acid. Phenol present in many foods of plant origin. Plays an important role in enzymic browning of fruits and vegetables. Has antioxidative activity, and may contribute to possible health-promoting or protective actions of dietary phenolic compounds.

Alternative term for the antibiotic chloramphenicol.

Organic halogen compound used in pesticides and wood preservatives. Formed in water and waste water as a result of chlorination. Chlorophenol contamination may cause taints in foods, beverages or water.

Alternative term for the insecticide trichlorfon.

EC 3.1.1.14. Involved in chlorophylls degradation, catalysing the conversion of chlorophyll to phytol and chlorophyllide. Responsible for production of pheophorbide in green tea, which may cause dermatitis.

Green photosynthetic pigments of the porphyrins class which occur in leaves and other plant tissues. May be used as food colorants, but stability is poor.

Soil fumigant which may occur as residues in foods. Also one of the disinfection by-products which may be formed during chlorination of drinking water.

Non-systemic foliar fungicide used for control of many fungal diseases in a wide range of crops, including pome fruits, stone fruits, citrus fruits, vegetables, soybeans, cereals, coffee and tea. In plants, the majority of residue remains as parent compound. Classified by Environmental Protection Agency as not acutely toxic (Environmental Protection Agency IV). Also known as daconil.

Selective systemic herbicide and plant growth regulator. Used for pre-emergence control of many annual grasses and some broad-leaved weeds in a wide range of vegetable crops; also used as a sprouting inhibitor in potatoes and tomatoes. Classified by Environmental Protection Agency as slightly toxic (Environmental Protection Agency III). Also known as CIPC.

Non-systemic organophosphorus insecticide used for control of biting and chewing insects in a wide range of fruits, vegetables and cereals; also used for stored cereals and in animal rearing facilities. Rapidly metabolized by plants and is not absorbed via roots. Classified by WHO as moderately toxic (WHO II). Also known as dursban.

Non-systemic organophosphorus insecticide and acaricide used for control of biting and chewing insects in a wide range of fruits, vegetables and cereals; also used for stored cereals. Classified by Environmental Protection Agency as slightly toxic (Environmental Protection Agency III).

Broad-spectrum tetracycline antibiotic used for treatment and control of a wide variety of bacterial infections in farm animals. Readily disperses throughout tissues; rapidly depletes following withdrawal in most cases.

A confectionery product made from hulled, fermented and roasted cocoa beans (nibs), blended with sugar, fats (cocoa butter or cocoa butter substitutes) and lecithins. Milk solids may be added to produce milk chocolate. Fat is an important component since its particular melting profile contributes to the mouthfeel of the product. Chocolate contains theobromine, an alkaloid with effects similar to those of caffeine.

Chocolate products that may or may not contain added ingredients or fillings, such as nuts, toffee, biscuits and dried fruits, formed into bars.

Hot or cold beverages in which chocolate is a main ingredient.

Small pieces of chocolate used as ingredients in confectionery and bakery products.

Chocolate preparations used to coat various products such as sugar confectionery, bakery products, fruit or ice cream. Formed by pre-crystallization of chocolate, coating of the food and cooling. Pre-crystallization and cooling affect the gloss, degree of solidification and coat thickness of the coatings produced.

Collective term for chocolate and chocolate products.

Chocolate which contains maximal levels of cocoa butter, used as coatings for high quality chocolate products.

Intermediate material produced during manufacture of milk chocolate, composed of dried milk, sugar and cocoa mass.

Desserts containing chocolate as a main ingredient, e.g. chocolate flavoured milk puddings and chocolate mousses.

Confectionery products composed of hard centres coated with chocolate.

Chocolate products used as fillings for various products, including sugar confectionery, bakery products and snack foods. May also refer to fillings (e.g. creme fillings) used for chocolates.

Fermented and roasted cocoa beans, which are ground finely to form a paste used in the manufacture of chocolate and cocoa powders. Grinding releases fats (cocoa butter) from the cells of the cocoa beans which helps the chocolate to flow. Also called chocolate mass, cocoa mass and cocoa liquor.

Alternative term for chocolate liquor, produced by grinding dehusked cocoa beans, or nibs, to a paste from which chocolate and chocolate products are made. Also called cocoa mass and cocoa liquor.

Chocolate flavoured milk-based beverage.

Manufactured from cocoa powders which are agglomerated to form larger particle sizes. Used in the manufacture of chocolate-based beverages.

Small, round chocolates with a soft and creamy centre, which may be flavoured, often with fruit flavourings or liqueurs.

Sweets made or coated with chocolate.

Pea-sized fruits produced in red and black varieties by plants of the genus Aronia. Black chokeberries, produced by A. melanocarpa, are violet-black in colour with a strong sour flavour. They are rich in vitamins and minerals and have a high content of flavonoids. Fruits are eaten fresh or preserved by canning or by drying whole or as a pulp. Juices may be extracted to make jellies. Also used commercially as a source of natural colorants.

Synonym for vitamin D3; one of the group of sterols which constitute vitamin D. Fat soluble vitamin necessary for formation of the skeleton and for mineral homeostasis. Produced on exposure to UV light from the sun from the provitamin 7- dehydrocholesterol, which is found in human skin. Alternative recommended name is calciol.

Acute infectious human disease characterized by profuse diarrhoea leading to extreme dehydration that can result in shock, renal failure and death. Caused by cholera toxin produced by Vibrio cholerae. Spread by the faecal-oral route, usually via faecescontaminated water and food.

Toxin produced by Vibrio cholerae that is responsible for cholera.

One of the sterols, and the major sterol found in vertebrate mammals. Present in all plasma membranes, but found especially in blood, liver, nerve tissue, brain tissue and animal fats. A precursor of many steroids, including the bile acids and steroid hormones. Not an essential dietary requirement; consumption of high levels have been associated with atherosclerosis and coronary heart diseases. Several health foods are claimed to reduce serum cholesterol levels; production of cholesterol-reduced products, especially dairy products and eggs, is increasing.

EC 1.1.3.6. Bifunctional flavoenzymes that catalyse the oxidation and isomerization of 3-β-hydroxy-5-ene-steroids to 3-keto-4-enesteroids. Useful for determination of cholesterol levels in foods and, potentially, for controlling cholesterol levels in fermented dairy products by expression in Lactobacillus spp.

Oxidized cholesterol derivatives, also known as oxysterols, which have been linked to a range of adverse health effects including cytotoxicity, atherogenicity and carcinogenicity. Cholesterol oxidation products have been identified in a range of foods, including eggs, meat, dairy products and sea foods. Their formation can be influenced by food processing and storage conditions.

Type of cholesterol oxidation products.

An amino alcohol and biogenic amine precursor with activity similar to that of vitamin B group members. Occurs widely in living organisms as a constituent of certain types of phospholipids (lecithins and sphingomyelin) and in the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Choline is synthesized in the body, is a ubiquitous component of cell membranes and therefore occurs in all foods. Rich sources include egg yolks, meat, livers and cereals.

EC 3.1.1.7 (acetylcholinesterases, also known as true cholinesterases) and EC 3.1.1.8 (also known as pseudocholinesterases). The former have been used in biosensors for detection of insecticides and drugs residues in water and foods, while the latter act on a variety of acetic esters and have been used for determination of choline esters.

EC 3.5.1.24. Catalyse hydrolysis of trihydroxycholanoylglycine and dihydroxy derivative into trihydroxycholanate and glycine. Also act on choloyltaurine. Have potential therapeutic uses due to their action in reducing serum cholesterol levels. Activity is common in lactic acid bacteria, especially strains of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus. Alternative names include bile salt hydrolases.

Genus of seaweeds containing the edible species Chondrus crispus (Irish moss), which has cartilaginous, dark purplish-red fronds. This species provides a source of carrageenans (sulfated polysaccharides) which are used as food emulsifiers.

Common name for the Asian plant, Zanthoxylum piperitum. Peel from the dried fruits of this plant is used as a spice and the leaves are also used in flavourings for foods. The dried fruits have an aromatic lemon-like aroma, while the leaves have a flavour with tones of mint and lime. Extracts of peel and leaves have antimicrobial activity. Also known by a variety of other names, including Sichuan pepper and Chinese pepper.

Cutting of foods into bite-sized (or smaller) pieces with repeated, sharp blows with knives or cleavers, usually on chopping boards. A food processor may also be used to chop foods.

Boards made of wood or plastics on which food is placed while being cut with a knives or cleavers (chopping). For safety reasons, it is best to use a separate board for vegetables and another (preferably wood) for raw meat. Hot water and detergents should always be used in conjunction with scrubbing to wash a chopping board after each use. Plastics boards may be cleaned in dishwashers.

Highly spiced, fermented pork sausages, made from coarsely comminuted meat, which is flavoured with garlic, chilli powder and other spices. Three major types are produced, namely fresh, semi-dried and dried. Air dried chorizo is sliced and eaten raw. Other types of chorizo are cooked by grilling or frying, or are added to other meat in spicy casseroles, soups and stews. Smoked versions of chorizo are also produced. Chorizo are used widely in Spanish and Mexican cookery. Spanish chorizo are made from smoked pork and are sold ready-to-eat, whilst Mexican chorizo are made from fresh pork and require cooking before eating.

Rich bread/cake originally from Germany that contains dried fruits and nuts and is traditionally eaten at Christmas. Alternative term for stollen.

Techniques in which components of a gaseous or liquid mixture are separated on the basis of differences in the rate at which they migrate through a liquid or solid stationary phase under the influence of a gas or liquid mobile phase. Once separated, individual components can be measured or identified by various methods. Types of chromatographic techniques include gas chromatography, layer chromatography, affinity chromatography and ion exchange chromatography, classified according to characteristics of the method.

Mineral, chemical symbol Cr, which is widespread in foods. An essential nutrient at low concentrations, but toxic in excess.

Genus of Gram negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria. Occur in soil and water. Chromobacterium violaceum is a pathogen found in water.

Plastids found in plant cells which contain pigments such as carotenoids and xanthophylls. Present especially in flowers and ripe fruits.

Self-replicating structures consisting of or containing DNA that carries genetic information essential to the cell. Bacterial chromosomes are usually circular and present as a single type within a cell, although many copies may be present in each cell. Eukaryotic chromosomes are complexed with proteins (chromatin) and located in the nucleus. They are present as pairs and each cell may contain a single type or many different types, depending on the organism.

Genus of flowering plants, the flowers and leaves from some species of which are consumed as vegetables. Commonly used species include the garland chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum coronarium).

Member of the carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) group which can occur as a contaminant in foods.

Genus of fungi of the class Eurotiomycetes. Species (e.g. Chrysosporium pannorum) may cause spoilage of fresh meat, especially beef.

Freshwater fish species (Leuciscus cephalus) of minor commercial importance belonging to the family Cyprinidae (minnows and carps). Found in rivers and lakes, and sometimes brackish water, in Europe and Asia Minor. Popular as a game fish. Eaten fresh or smoked.

Marine fish species (Scomber japonicus) from the mackerel family; widely distributed in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Commercially cultured in Japan. Flesh is fatty with a strong flavour. Marketed fresh, frozen, smoked, salted and occasionally canned. Also known as Pacific mackerel and Spanish mackerel.

Stem tubers of Cyperus esculentus, cultivated in West Africa. Eaten raw or roasted, or used to make non-alcoholic beverages. Also known as tiger-nuts.

Partridges which are similar to the red-thin legged partridge, but belonging to the genus Alectoris. There are two species. Chukars are hunted as game birds, but are also farmed successfully. Battery-farmed chukars slaughtered at 14-20 weeks of age have ready-to-cook yields (from live weight) of approximately 75%. A large proportion of the boneless cooked meat yield is breast meat.

Pacific salmon species (Oncorhynchus keta) found in coastal waters and rivers along the Pacific coasts of North America and Japan. Flesh has highly regarded flavour and texture; occurs in pink or white forms. Mainly canned but also sold fresh, dried-salted, smoked, and frozen. Roes are utilized in caviar substitutes.

Traditional Japanese and Korean fermented product made from soybeans. Also known as chunggugjang.

Process used in buttermaking. Agitation or churning of cream breaks down the milk fat globule membranes, allowing individual milk fat globules to coalesce into grains which eventually separate from the buttermilk.

Fruit or vegetable pickles, containing ingredients including spices and sugar. Originally an Indian delicacy.

EC 3.4.23.4. Broad specificity similar to that of pepsin A. Also known as rennin. Component of rennets, it initiates the clotting of milk by cleavage of the Phe105-Met106 bond in the κ-chain of casein. Found in the fourth stomach of calves although microbially-produced recombinant enzymes are now widely available. Used extensively in cheesemaking.

EC 3.4.21.1. A serine proteinase produced as an inactive precursor. Cleaves peptide bonds immediately after a Tyr, Trp, Phe or Leu residue.

Molecules, generally proteins, which inhibit the activity of chymotrypsin (EC 3.4.21.1, a serine proteinase). These inhibitors occur naturally in a range of plant foods, particularly seeds, where they play a role in plant defence against pests and pathogens. However, they can also act as antinutritional factors in plant foods, reducing the digestibility and nutritional values of these foods for humans. Cooking and other processing treatments can reduce levels of chymotrypsin inhibitors in plant foods. Efforts are also being made to breed plants with reduced levels of these compounds.

In the UK, alcoholic beverages made by fermentation of apple musts. In the USA, this alcoholic beverage is termed hard cider, and the term cider refers to unfermented apple juices.

Cultivars of apples grown for use in cider production.

Fruit-flavoured vinegar made by refermenting cider or apple wines. Used widely as a table vinegar, especially in the USA and apple growing regions of Europe.

Yeasts used for fermentation of apple musts to produce cider.

Food poisoning caused by consumption of tropical marine fish containing a neurotoxin (ciguatoxin) produced by certain dinoflagellates. Symptoms include abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting and multiple, varied neurological disorders. Ciguatera poisoning is the most common nonbacterial, fish-borne poisoning in the USA (mainly Hawaii and Florida) and is a significant health concern in tropical areas worldwide. Species of fish most frequently implicated in ciguatera outbreaks include grouper, amberjack, red snappers, eels, sea bass, barracuda and Spanish mackerel.

Neurotoxin produced by dinoflagellates associated with coral reefs, which can accumulate in fish and cause ciguatera poisoning in consumers. Gambierdiscus toxicus is the dinoflagellate most notably responsible for production of ciguatoxin, although other species have been identified recently. At least five types of ciguatoxin have been identified and are noted to accumulate in larger and older fish higher up the food chain.

β-Adrenergic agonist used to enhance growth rates and improve feed efficiency and lean meat content of animals. Use as a growth-promoting agent in farm animals is not permitted in many countries.

Member of the terpenes class of flavour compounds, which occurs in many spices and essential oils.

Member of the phenolic aldehydes class of flavour compounds, characteristic of cinnamon but also occurring in other foods. Has antimicrobial properties.

Member of the phenolic acids class of flavour compounds which occurs in a wide range of foods. Cinnamic acid esters are also important flavour compounds. Cinnamic acid and its esters have antimicrobial activity.

Widely-used aromatic spice obtained from the dried inner bark of trees belonging to several species of Cinnamomum. True cinnamon (also known as Ceylon cinnamon) is C. zeylanicum, while much of the cinnamon sold in North America is actually cassia (C. cassia). Cinnamon is used in stick (quill) or ground form for flavouring both sweet and savoury foods, including confectionery, meat dishes and cola beverages.

Essential oils obtained from either cinnamon bark or cinnamon leaves. Cinnamon leaf oil has a high eugenol content and is used as an alternative to clove oils in seasoning blends. Cinnamon bark oil is characterized by a high cinnamaldehyde content and is used as the source of cinnamon essences for cooking.

Alternative term for the herbicide chlorpropham.

Fluoroquinolone antibiotic used for treatment and control of gastrointestinal and respiratory infections in farm animals.

Phenomenon (usually abbreviated to CD) that is observed when optically active matter absorbs left and right hand circular polarized light differently. CD is a function of wavelength and is measured using a CD spectropolarimeter. CD spectra vary according to secondary structure and can be analysed to give information about the secondary structure of biological macromolecules such as peptides, proteins and nucleic acids.

Member of the terpene aldehydes class of flavour compounds. Occurs in a wide range of plant foods, especially coriander, pepper, lemon peel and ginger.

EC 2.3.3.1 (citrate (si)-synthases) and EC 2.3.3.3 (citrate (re)-synthases). These two enzymes exhibit opposite stereospecificities and are involved in the formation of citric acid from acetyl- CoA and oxaloacetic acid.

Salts of citric acid which occur naturally in many foods, and may be used as acidulants in foods and beverages.

Commercially important, versatile organic acid, widely used, along with its salts (citrates), in the food and beverage industries. Highly soluble in water and used in acidulants, antioxidants, flavourings, antimicrobial compounds and chelating agents. Usually obtained commercially by extraction from citrus fruits (it is the predominant acid in lemons, oranges and limes), or by fermentation of sugar or fruit processing wastes by Aspergillus niger. Isomer of isocitric acid.

The process by which certain organisms produce citric acid. Aspergillus niger is the organism mostly used in industrial processes. Substrates include molasses and starch hydrolysates.

Yellow pigmented mycotoxin produced by Penicillium citrinum and a few species of Aspergillus. Used as an antibacterial agent against Gram positive bacteria.

Genus of Gram negative, rod-shaped coliform bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae. Occur in the intestines of humans and other vertebrates, water, sewage and soil. Species may be found in dairy products, raw shellfish, raw poultry meat and fresh raw vegetables. Citrobacter freundii and C. diversus may cause diarrhoea in humans.

Tropical Asian grass (Cymbopogon nardus). Lemon-scented leaves are used in flavourings in cooking and as a tea. Source of essential oils that are used in commercial flavourings as well as in perfumery and insect repellents.

Yellow aromatic oils obtained from lemon-scented tropical grasses of the Cymbopogon genus (particularly C. nardus). Used in the food industry and as an aromatic/deodorizer in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps and insect repellents. Contains geraniol, citronellol and citronellal.

Member of the terpene aldehydes group of flavour compounds, which occurs in essential oils of citrus fruits and a wide range of spices.

Member of the terpene alcohols group of flavour compounds. Occurs in a wide range of plant foods, including fruits, essential oils, ginger and wines.

Long fruits produced by Citrus medica, with thick peel and acid flesh. Used in production of can-died peel, preparation of which involves fermenting immature fruit in brines and then soaking in a strong sugar solution. The candied peel is used in confectionery products.

One of the non-essential amino acids, which does not occur in proteins.

Beverages based on citrus juices and/or whole homogenates of citrus fruits.

Essential oils obtained from citrus fruits, e.g. bergamot oils. Typically produced by pressing the oil from citrus peel, although leaves, fruit or juice may also be used as the source. Applications include as flavourings for soft drinks, ice cream, chewing gums and puddings. Limonene and other terpenes are major components. However, these are frequently removed prior to use of the oils, due to their susceptibility to off flavour production as a result of oxidation. Alternative term for citrus oils.

Fleshy and juicy fruits produced on trees of the genus Citrus. Include oranges, lemons, grapefruit, limes, tangerines, satsumas, mandarins and many hybrid varieties. All are rich in vitamin C.

Citrus juices which have been concentrated. May be diluted to produce normal strength citrus juices or used in manufacture of other beverages or foods.

Juices extracted from citrus fruits; important types include orange juices, lemon juices, lime juices and grapefruit juices.

Essential oils obtained from citrus fruits, e.g. bergamot oils. Typically produced by pressing the oil from citrus peel, although leaves, fruit or juice may also be used as the source. Applications include as flavourings for soft drinks, ice cream, chewing gums and puddings. Limonene and other terpenes are major components. However, these are frequently removed prior to use of the oils, due to their susceptibility to off flavour production as a result of oxidation. Also called citrus essential oils.

Pectins extracted from citrus fruits. Citrus peel is one of the main commercial sources of pectins.

Outer skin of citrus fruits, consisting of the outer coloured flavedo (also called the epicarp or zest) and the white inner pith (also called the albedo or mesocarp). The flavedo is the source of citrus essential oils, while the albedo is used as a source of pectins. Peel is also rich in fibre and phytochemicals. Often candied and used in baking, or used in making flavourings.

Dye used to improve the colour of orange peel.

Abbreviation for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease.

Chemical symbol for chlorine.

Genus of fungi of the class Hyphomycetes. Occur on fruits and vegetables. Cladosporium herbarum may cause spoilage of chilled meat. Other species may be responsible for spoilage of butter, margarines, stone fruits, eggs and grapes.

General name given to a wide range of bivalve molluscs; typically marine bivalves with equally sized valves that burrow in mud or sand. Many clams are valued as sea foods and are eaten in a variety of ways, including baked, fried, stewed, stuffed, raw on the half shell, and in chowders and soups.

Process in which sediment and impurities are separated out of a liquid to make it clearer. Rendered fats can be clarified by adding hot water and boiling. The mixture is then strained and chilled. The resulting top layer of fat should be almost entirely clear of residue. Other products to which clarification is applied include fruit juices, wines and beer.

Equipment used for the process of clarification, in which sediment and impurities are separated out of a liquid to make it clearer.

Optical properties relating to the extent to which an item is clear and transparent.

Genus of edible wild club fungi of the class Hymenomycetes.

Genus of fungi of the order Clavicipitales. Typically parasitic to grasses. Causes plant diseases such as ergot, a disease of rye.

Sticky impermeable earth that can be moulded when mixed with water and baked to make containers. Clay is plastic when moist and becomes permanently hard and retains its shape when baked or fired. Of widespread importance in industry, clays consist of a group of hydrous alumino-silicate minerals. Individual mineral grains are microscopic in size and shaped like flakes. This makes their aggregate surface area much greater than their thickness and allows them to take up large amounts of water by adhesion, giving them plasticity and causing some varieties to swell. Clays are effective filter aids and are used during adsorption bleaching of oils.

Alternative term for cleaning in place.

Technology that incorporates use of a sterile, dust-free environment. Objectives of a clean room are to isolate a controlled area from the outside, and to control movement of materials and personnel. Parameters requiring control in a clean room are temperature, relative humidity, water activity, pressure, noise and lighting. Sources and parameters of potential contamination include air quality, type and geometry of air intake systems, personnel, machinery and equipment, waste produced and packaging materials.

To make a surface free from dirt, pollutants or harmful substances.

Agents, such as disinfectants, used in the cleaning process.

A process in which processing equipment is cleaned using an in-place cleaning system that is usually computer controlled. Cleaning in place (CIP) systems are useful for equipment that is not easily accessible to the operator, and when opening the equipment would be harmful to the operators or the environment, and detrimental to product quality.

Citrus fruit regarded as a cultivar of tangerines or a hybrid of tangerines and sweet oranges. Rich in vitamin C.

One of the β-agonist drugs which is used in some countries as a growth promoter in slaughter animals. There is concern that residues in meat may present a health hazard.

Use of various genetic techniques for producing copies of single genes or segments of DNA by insertion in cloning vectors (e.g. plasmids or viruses). These vectors can then be introduced into recipient cells and propagated. The term also involves production of genetically identical cells (clones) from a single ancestor. In plants, the term refers to natural or artificial vegetative propagation.

Autonomously replicating DNA molecules (e.g. plasmids, viral genomes and yeast artificial chromosomes) into which foreign DNA fragments can be inserted. They can then be inserted into host cells, propagated and, in the case of expression vectors, used for production of homologous or heterologous proteins.

Genus of Gram positive, anaerobic rod-shaped bacteria. Occur in soil and in the intestinal tracts of humans and other animals. Some species are pathogens, e.g. Clostridium botulinum, the causal agent of botulism, and C. perfringens.

Devices or packaging components used for closing or sealing of containers. Include caps, corks, crown corks, lids, stoppers and tamper evident closures.

The process of coagulation to produce a thick mass of cohesive material, e.g. formation of curd upon coagulation of milk.

Turbidity or haze within a product, usually applied to beverages.

Rubus Fruits produced by chamaemorus. Orange-yellow with an appearance similar to raspberries and a flavour like apples. Usually eaten stewed or as jams.

Extent to which an item is turbid, i.e. hazy in appearance. Usually applied to liquids such as beverages.

Substances used to impart the appearance of turbidity to foods and beverages. Soy proteins and citrus fruit processing wastes are frequently used as clouding agents in citrus beverages.

Pungent, aromatic spices obtained from the dried, unopened flower buds of the tropical evergreen tree Syzygium aromaticum (syn. Eugenia caryophyllata, E. caryophyllus). Used whole or ground in a range of foods and beverages, including cakes and biscuits, bread sauces, curries and mulled wines.

Alternative term for carpet shells.

Semisynthetic penicillin antibiotic used principally to treat staphylococcal mastitis in cattle. Residues in milk are normally undetectable at 5 days following final dose.

Alternative term for guar beans, seeds of Cyamopsis tetragonolobus. Immature pods are eaten as vegetables. Galactomannans are extracted from the seeds to make guar gums, which are used as stabilizers and thickeners in foods.

Abbreviation for carboxymethylcellulose.

Chemical formula for carbon dioxide.

Substances or agents that causes separation or precipitation of solids from a solution, a process known as coagulation or clotting.

Precipitation of solids from a solution, usually upon addition of specific agents, producing material of a solid or semi solid state. Coagulation is a process particularly applicable to cheesemaking. Also known as clotting.

Formed by precipitation of casein by the action of acids or rennets, as in cheese curd.

Artificial colorants originally obtained from coal tar hydrocarbons. The term is now used to refer to any artificial organic dyes or pigments, regardless of source. Also known as aniline dyes.

Marine fish species (Pollachius virens) from the cod family (Gadidae) found in the northern and western Atlantic and Barents Sea. This species is often used in production of fish cakes, but is also marketed fresh, dried/salted, smoked, canned and frozen. Also known as pollock and saithe.

Covering food with a layer of coating material. For example, chicken pieces may be dipped or rolled in seasoned breadcrumbs or flour prior to cooking. The food can be dipped into beaten eggs, milk or beer before being coated with the dry mixture, to aid adhesion of the coatings to the food. Coating food in this manner usually precedes frying baking. Products such as mayonnaise or or sauces can also be used to coat food.

Materials which form thin continuous layers or coverings over the surface of foods. Used to enclose and/or protect the food, and may be eaten along with the food or removed before consumption. Include batters, breadcrumbs, breadings, carnauba wax, chocolate coatings, shellac and wax coatings.

Term that covers several chemically related compounds, members of the vitamin B group, that are essential for cell division in tissues where this process is rapid, e.g. in formation of red blood cells. Deficiency leads to pernicious anaemia when immature red blood cells are released into the-bloodstream, and there is degeneration of the spinal cord. This typeof anaemia is the same as seen in folates deficiency.

Mineral, chemical symbol Co, which is widespread in foods. An essential nutrient, but toxic in excess.

Alternative term for hazelnuts.

A proprietary brand of cola beverages.

Spherical, or near spherical, bacterial cells.

Infestation of the gastrointestinal tract with parasitic coccidia protozoa. Affects many animals (including cattle, swine, sheep and poultry), but rarely humans. Typically contracted via the faecaloral route and may vary from mild to fatal. Characterized in animals by diarrhoea, tenesmus, anorexia and nausea. Usually asymptomatic in humans.

Drugs used for control of pathogenic protozoa (from class Coccidia) responsible for coccidiosis and other parasitic diseases. Normally used prophylactically in feeds for poultry, swine, cattle and sheep. Examples include dimetridazole, nicarbazin and salinomycin.

Water-soluble natural red colorant obtained from the dried bodies of South American insects (Coccus cacti). The red colour is due to carminic acid, whose aluminium lake is known as carmine.

General name used for several species of marine bivalve molluscs; characterized by a shell having convex radial ribs. Commonly eaten species include Cerastodermum edulis (common cockle), Cardium corbis and C. aculeatum (spiny cockle). Marketed in a variety of ways, including fresh, salted, bottled in vinegar and canned in brines.

Common name for orthopteran insects of the family Blattidae, which possess flat wide bodies, and long slender segmented antennae. Widespread pests in human dwellings and food factories. May be pests of stored foods and act as vectors for pathogens.

Alcoholic beverages generally based on a mixture of spirits with flavourings or other ingredients.

Small tropical American tree (Theobroma ca-cao) of the family Sterculiaceae (or Byttneriaceae), seeds of which (cocoa beans) are rich in theobromine and, after fermentation and roasting, are used to make cocoa, chocolate and their products. Sometimes refers to highly concentrated cocoa powders made by grinding and removing most of the fats (cocoa butter), or a milk-based beverage made with such powders. Also known as cacao.

Seeds or fruits of the cocoa tree (Theobroma cacao) that are rich in theobromine. After fermentation and roasting, cocoa beans are used to make cocoa, cocoa powders, chocolate and their products. Also known as cacao beans.

Beverages based on cocoa (Theobroma cacao) solids.

Edible vegetable fat obtained by pressing or solvent extraction of ground, roasted dehulled cocoa beans (Theobroma cacao). Composed of symmetrical disaturated oleic glycerol esters resulting in brittleness at room temperature and a sharp melting point at 31-35°C. Used primarily in the food industry for manufacturing chocolate.

Vegetable fats with similar triacylglycerols composition and physicochemical properties to cocoa butter. Used for partial or complete replacement of cocoa butter.

Vegetable fats that may be mixed with cocoa butter to a limited degree without significantly affecting its physicochemical properties.

Alternative term for cocoa butter substitutes.

Fractionated fats based on various oils (palm, palm kernel, coconut or hydrogenated soybean) designed to replace cocoa butter in confectionery applications. Also known as cocoa butter replacers.

Produced by grinding of cocoa beans nibs (beans from which the shell or husk has been removed) to release the cocoa butter from the cells. Used in the manufacture of chocolate and chocolate products. Also called cocoa liquor, chocolate liquor and chocolate mass.

Products obtained by extracting a predetermined amount of cocoa butter from chocolate liquor using hydraulic presses, and grinding the resulting press cake. Cocoa powders produced are classified according to fat contents.

Fruits produced by Solanum topiro or S. sessiliflorum. Orange to maroon in colour, with white to pale yellow flesh. Rich in iron; good source of vitamin A, vitamin C and niacin. Used in salads, cooked with fish or in meat stews, sweetened in sauces and pies, pickled, candied or in jams and jellies. Often processed as a nectars or juices. Leaves are also cooked and eaten as a vegetable.

Alternative term for coconut oils when in its semi-solid state.

Product similar to coconut milk, but richer. Relatively high fat content, with level varying among commercial brands. For the canned product, coconut milk is filtered, mixed with emulsifiers and stabilizers, and emulsified to give a creamy consistency, before pasteurization and canning. Used in the same way as cream in many recipes and also in beverages.

Liquid prepared by squeezing freshly grated coconut endosperm through sieves. Relatively high in fat, level varying among commercial brands. Used in products such as curries and confectionery.

Semi-solid white fats or pale yellow to colourless oils extracted from copra, the dried pulp of coconuts, Cocos nucifera. Rich in lauric acid and myristic acid and used extensively in the food industry. Also known as copra oils.

Alcoholic beverages made by fermentation of the sap of coconut palms (Cocos nucifera).

The liquid enclosed within the kernels of coconuts (Cocos nucifera), which may be used in beverages.

Common name for Cocos nucifera. Fruits of the coconut palm consisting of an outer skin, a fibrous region and a hard shell enclosing the commercially used nuts. The white endosperm (meat) found inside the shell has a cavity in the centre which contains a watery liquid (coconut water, a popular tropical beverage). Endosperm may be eaten fresh, or dried to make copra, from which coconut oils are extracted, or desiccated coconut. Freshly grated endosperm is squeezed to make coconut milk.

Genus of palms. In some, including the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) and C. yatay, fruits, buds and inflorescences are eaten or used in making foods and beverages.

Starchy corms of Xanthosoma sagittifolium (new cocoyams, also called tannia or yautia) or Colocasia esculenta (old cocoyams, alternative term for taro) that form part of the staple diet in African countries. Eaten roasted, boiled or baked; the flour prepared from the corm is used as a food ingredient and in making fufu.

Name given to several marine fish species from the family Gadidae. The principal cod species is Gadus morhua (Atlantic cod) which is widely distributed in the north Atlantic and Barents Sea and in commercial terms is the most important food fish in northern Europe. Flesh is lean, firm and white. Other cod species include G. macrocephalus (Pacific cod), G. ogac (Greenland cod) and Boreogadus saida (Arctic cod). Marketed fresh, frozen, smoked. Often processed as a battered product for frying, grilling or baking.

Pale yellow oils derived from the liv-ers of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) and other species of the family Gadidae. Have a typical fish-like flavour which is intensified on exposure to light. Rich in vitamin A and vitamin D. Contain saturated, monoenoic and polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid.

Livers from members of the cod family (Gadidae) which are an important source of fish oils. Cod livers are also used in the production of cod liver pastes, which contain spices and other flavourings and are marketed canned and in the form of sausages.

A food code which provides an opportunity for all countries to join the international community in formulating and harmonizing food standards and ensuring their global implementation. The Codex Alimentarius Commission, established in the early 1960s by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO), is the body responsible for compiling the standards, codes of practice, guidelines and recommendations that constitute the Codex Alimentarius. Membership of the Commission is open to all Member Nations and Associate Members of FAO and WHO; the Commission meets every two years. National delegations are led by senior officials appointed by their governments. Countries that are not yet members of the Commission attend in an observer capacity.

Life-long intolerance to wheat gluten, characterized by inflammation of the proximal small intestine. The disease is often manifested as persistent diarrhoea, malabsorption and malnutrition. Aetiological mechanisms include genetic predisposition, dietary exposure to wheat and immunological factors; prevalence of the disease is high in geographical areas where wheat is a dietary staple. Management of the condition involves consumption of a gluten free diet, which has been facilitated by the development of gluten free foods, especially gluten free bread.

Low molecular weight non-protein organic molecules, whether freely dissociable or firmly bound, necessary for the activity of certain enzymes.

Common name for Echinophora tenuifolia subsp. sibthorpiana which is used as a spice and source of essential oils in Turkey.

The process of producing continuous multilayer products in sheet, film, tubing, filament, or other forms, and for production of filled foods. Separate polymer or ingredient streams are fed from different extruders to a die feed block, where they are combined in the die, emerging in combined form as a continuous multilayer extrudate.

Fermentation of two or more substrates by a single microorganism or fermentation of a single substrate by two or more microorganisms.

Beverages prepared from ground roasted coffee beans (Coffea arabica and C. canephora).

Ground roasted coffee packaged in portion-size bags for easy infusion to produce coffee beverages.

Restaurants serving coffee and light refreshments.

Seeds of the coffee bush (Coffea arabica or canephora) which are used to prepare coffee beverages. As grown, coffee beans are enclosed in soft fruits; these are fermented, and the seeds (coffee beans) are separated from the soft tissue. Raw coffee beans are roasted and ground before use in preparation of beverages.

Beverages prepared by infusion of ground roasted coffee beans in hot water by a variety of processes. Optionally consumed with addition of other substances, commonly milk, cream or sugar. Types of coffee beverages include espresso coffee, cappuccino coffee and cafe latte.

In Germany, cream with a minimum fat content of 10% marketed also with fat contents of 12 and 15%. Also called drinking cream. Whitening power in coffee is increased by homogenization; further processing is performed to increase stability of higher fat products in hot coffee.

Concentrated coffee extracts.

Liquid extracts from coffee beans, containing active ingredients and flavour compounds; coffee extracts may be used for preparation of coffee beverages.

Dried coffee extracts presented in the form of granules.

Roasted coffee beans which have been ground ready for use in preparation of coffee beverages.

Volatile, water soluble substances formed during roasting of coffee beans so that the sugars and carbohydrates within the bean become caramelized. Contribute to the flavour and aroma of coffee.

Dry coffee extracts in the form of powders.

Materials for preparation of beverages with sensory properties resembling those of coffee. Commonly based on roasted plant materials, e.g. grains or chicory roots.

Whiteners used in coffee and tea beverages as an inexpensive alternative to milk. Typically made from vegetable fats, casein, carbohydrates, emulsifiers and stabilizers. Available in liquid or powdered (shelf stable) forms.

A high quality brandy manufactured in a defined district in the Charente and Charente Maritime regions of France.

Behavioural effects relating to acquisition and use of knowledge (perception, attention, memory, speech and language, and reasoning). Some foods can affect cognitive performance.

Pacific salmon species (Oncorhynchus kisutch) found in rivers and coastal waters along western and eastern Pacific coasts. High fat, firm-textured flesh is somewhat lighter in colour than that of other Pacific salmon. Marketed fresh, dried/salted, smoked, canned, cured and frozen.

α-Acids fraction present in hops and hop products and contributing to the bittering action of hops in beer.

Soft drinks flavoured with extracts of cola nuts.

Nuts produced by Cola nitida and C. acuminata. Used in manufacture of soft drinks such as cola beverages, or chewed as a stimulant. High caffeine content. Also known as kola nuts.

Semi-soft washed-curd cheese from the USA, made from cow milk. Ripens in 4 months. It has a sweet and mild flavour and must be eaten soon after purchase to prevent drying out and loss of flavour.

Cutting of meat (muscle) from animal carcasses that have been refrigerated at 1-2°C for 48 h post mortem.

Protein fractions which are synthesized in various bacteria in response to cold shock, and which contribute to cold tolerance and psychrophilic properties of these bacteria.

Contraction of muscle fibres in raw meat at low temperatures. Related to toughness in the meat once cooked.

Storage of foods at refrigeration temperature in order to extend shelf life.

Refrigerated rooms or cabinets used for storage of foods at low temperatures, to extend shelf life.

Salad of shredded vegetables, principally cabbages, dressed with mayonnaise or an alternative creamy dressing.

Bacteriocins produced by members of the family Enterobacteriaceae (e.g. strains of Escherichia coli and Shigella sonnei) which are often lethal to other susceptible bacterial strains within this family.

Gram negative, anaerobic, lactosefermenting, rod-shaped bacteria, typically found in the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and animals (e.g. species of the genera Citrobacter, Enterobacter, Escherichia and Klebsiella). May loosely refer to any Gram negative, rod-shaped enteric bacteria.

Bacteriophages that infect Escherichia coli.

Inflammatory disease of unknown cause which affects some or all of the colon. Takes various forms, e.g. ulcerative colitis, mucus colitis or ischaemic coli-tis, which differ in symptoms and effects, and tends to vary in intensity over time. Sensitivity to diet depends on the individual, but in general foods and beverages which act as bowel irritants should be avoided. These include tea, coffee, alcoholic beverages, vinegar, spicy foods, fried foods, sugars and salty foods.

Insoluble animal proteins, with high contents of the amino acids glycine, hydroxyproline and proline. Collagen is the main fibrous component of skin, tendons, connective tissues and bones. Networks of collagen are also present in tissues and organs including the muscles. Thermal denaturation of collagen occurs between 60 and 90°C. When collagen is boiled it is converted into soluble gelatin. Collagen is important in relation to meat texture. Collagen crosslinks link together molecules and fibrils of collagen, increasing its tensile strength; thus, the greater the number of crosslinks the tougher the meat. In cooked meat, the presence of collagen crosslinks contributes to shrinkage and tension development, with a subsequent increase in meat toughness. Collagen is used to form edible, biodegradable films and coatings for the packaging of foods.

Edible and inedible sausage casings, which are regenerated from collagen extracted from animal hides and skins. Edible collagen casings have very uniform physical characteristics and are much stronger than natural casings; they are mainly used to prepare fresh pork sausages and frankfurters. Inedible collagen casings must be removed before sausages are eaten; their advantages include strength, uniformity and shrinkage characteristics.

Digest collagen in the triple helical region, hydrolysing peptide bonds prior to a Gly residue. These enzymes are useful for meat tenderization, while proteolytic digestion products of collagen are useful as seasonings and ingredients.

Leaves of a smooth-leaved variety of kale. Used as a vegetable. Good source of vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium and iron.

Genus of fungi of the class Coelomycetes. Some species are important plant pathogens. Colletotrichum gloesporioides causes anthracnose of tropical fruits (e.g. mangoes and papayas), and C. musae causes anthracnose and crown rot of bananas.

A measure of the longevity of colloids; the ability to maintain the suspension of one material in another.

Mixtures containing small particles of one material suspended in another, often of a different phase. Colloidal particles are generally 1 to 100 nm in size and so are larger than the individual solution molecules, but smaller than particles found in precipitates, which can be removed by filtration. Examples of colloids include aerosols, foams, emulsions and gels. A colloid containing solid particles suspended in a liquid is more accurately called a sol.

Edible fungi, some species of which are members of the genus Flammulina or Lentinus.

Enumeration of cell colonies in a given sample cultured on a solid medium.

Numbers of cell colonies in a given sample cultured on a solid medium.

Substances that impart colour, such as dyes or pigments. Added to foods to improve visual appearance, replace colour lost during processing and ensure colour consistency. Broadly classified into natural colorants and artificial colorants, depending on whether they are substances extracted from natural sources or manufactured for use as a food additive.

Malignant diseases of the large intestine. Dietary factors suggested to be associated with reduced risk for this cancer include increased in-takes of dietary fibre, fruits and vegetables and reduced intakes of meat and iron.

Instruments that measure the contents of components in a sample solution by comparison of colour with that of standard solutions.

Analytical technique based on comparison of the colour of a solution with that of a standard solution.

Mammary secretion produced during the first 4-5 days post partum. Differs from mature milk mainly in the high content of immunoglobulins, which provide passive immunization of the suckling infant or animal. Other differences in composition include increased contents of milk fats, short-chain fatty acids, lactoferrin, minerals, most vitamins, some hormones and some organic acids in colostrum, and reduced contents of medium-chain fatty acids, lactose, orotic acid, and some vitamins and hormones. Sale of colostrum is prohibited.

Optical properties relating to the subjective appearance of the wavelength or wavelengths present in a beam of light perceived by the eye. Although it is actually continuous, the visible spectrum is usually split into seven major colours - red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet - in order of decreasing wavelength. Colour of foods not only helps to determine quality, but is also an index of ripeness or spoilage. Various types of spectrophotometers or colorimeters can be used for colour measurement.

Chromatography technique in which a column or tube is used to hold the stationary phase.

β-Acids fraction present in hops and hop products.

Alternative term for rapeseed oils.

Genus of Gram negative, rod-shaped motile bacteria, type species Comamonas terrigena. Some species, including C. acidovorans, accumulate poly-β-hydroxybutyrate and some, e.g. C. acidovorans and C. testosteroni, produce biotechnologically useful enzymes such as esterases and quinohaemoprotein alcohol dehydrogenases. C. terrigena and C. testosteroni were previously members of the genus Pseudomonas, while C. acidovorans is synonymous with Delftia acidovorans.

In general terms, process in which a substance reacts with oxygen or other oxidant giving off heat and light. As an analytical technique, a method for determination of nitrogen and crude protein in a sample by burning in oxygen and measurement of the nitrogen gas produced.

Common name for the herb Symphytum officinale, a member of the borage family. Leaves and stems can be eaten, usually boiled or fried; the plant is also used in flavourings and health foods. Contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids, which can be toxic.

Reduction of a food to minute particles or fragments.

Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) was established by the 1957 Rome treaty that created the European Economic Community (EEC). CAP was intended to stabilize agricultural markets, improve productivity, and ensure a fair deal for both farmers and consumers. It has three major elements: a single market for agricultural products with a system of common prices to producers across the EU; preference for EU producers through a common levy on all agricultural imports from abroad; and shared financial responsibility for guaranteeing prices.

Seeds produced by Phaseolus vulgaris. Vary in size, shape and colour. Eaten fresh, canned or frozen, and available dried. Also used as ingredients in many dishes. Due to the presence of antinutritional factors, dried seeds must be soaked and cooked well before consumption. Beans produced by this species have been given a variety of names, including French beans, kidney beans, haricot beans, snap beans, string beans, cannellino beans and pinto beans.

Cereals belonging to the genera Panicum and Setaria.

Technique in which a substance is measured by the extent to which a complex is formed with an agent. Used to indicate the end point of a titration by formation of a coloured complex.

Products made by blending wheat flour with flour of other origins. Often used to make bakery products that are conventionally made with wheat flour alone.

Fruit products made by stewing fruits with sugar or in syrups; eaten hot or cold.

One of the rheological properties, and a measure of the degree to which matter can be squashed or crushed by an externally-applied force. Indicates the hardness, firmness or sponginess of a material.

Apparatus used for determining compressibility.

Flattening of an item by pressure.

Analysis and organization of data by the repeated use of one or more computer programs.

French hard cheese made from cow milk. Very creamy, with piquant, yet sweet, flavour. Has eyes that vary in size from that of a pea to that of a cherry. Requires a long ripening period.

Iron-binding protein found in egg whites. Also known as ovotransferrin.

One of the main proteins in peanuts. Present in two forms (I and II) that differ in size. Along with arachin, these make up 75% of the total protein in peanuts.

Lectins fraction extracted from jack beans (Canavalia ensiformis) which binds to glycoproteins with α-glycoside or α-mannoside groups. Agglutinates many cell types, and is mitogenic.

Product resulting from removal of a considerable proportion of the water from milk. Includes evaporated milk and condensed milk. A vacuum is applied to reduce the boiling point of milk and thus maintain its quality during evaporation. Evaporated and unsweetened condensed milk are sterilized by heat. Usually sold in cans in a range of fat contents. Can be reconstituted by addition of water in amounts stated on the packaging.

Grape musts (generally made from winemaking grapes) which have been purified (e.g. by ion exchange) and concentrated. May be used as a source of added sugar in winemaking, to increase alcohol concentration in the wines or to increase sweetness of wines.

The process by which the strength of a solution or substance is increased. Achieved by a variety of means, including evaporation, filtration and dialysis.

The final step in chocolate manufacture, in which machines with rotating blades slowly blend heated chocolate liquor, ridding it of residual moisture and volatile acids. Conching continues for 12 to 72 hours (depending on the type and quality of chocolate), while small amounts of cocoa butter and sometimes lecithins are added to give chocolate its smooth texture.

The conversion of a vapour or gas to a liquid. In physics, condensation is the process of reduction of matter into a denser form, as in the liquefaction of vapour or steam. Condensation is the result of the reduction of temperature by removal of latent heat of evaporation, the liquid product being known as condensate. Condensation is an important part of the process of distillation. In chemistry, condensation is a reaction involving the union of atoms in the same or Analysis and or-different molecules. The process often leads to elimination of a simple molecule such as water or alcohol to form a new and more complex compound, often of greater molecular weight.

Milk thickened by evaporation of a considerable amount of its water content. Usually sold in cans and may be sweetened or unsweetened. Unsweetened milk is similar to evaporated milk, i.e. sterilized by heat, sold in a range of fat contents and may be reconstituted by addition of water in amounts stated on the packaging. Sweetened condensed milk contains sugar in amounts high enough to act as a preservative, and is used in baking and to make sweet products such as confectionery, puddings and pies.

Distinctly flavoured products used to season foods. Refers in particular to items that are added to foods at the table immediately prior to consumption (e.g. sauces, relishes and mustard), rather than items added during cooking.

Technique in which the concentration of a substance in solution is measured by conductance of that solution when an alternating current is applied. Changes in conductance can be used to indicate the end point of a titration. Alternative spelling is conductometry.

Alternative term for electrical conductivity or thermal conductivity. The former is a measure of the ability of a material to carry an electric current. The latter is a thermophysical property relating to the rate of conduction of heat through a material.

Generic term for sweetened food products. Sugar confectionery refers to products such as sweets, candy and chocolates, while bakers confectionery refers to bakery products such as cakes and pastries.

Sugar confectionery products formed into bars. Examples include chocolate bars.

Water-in-oil or oil-in-water emulsions used mainly as fillings for bakery products.

Products such as fondants or cremes which may contain nuts, flavourings or other ingredients and are used to fill sugar confectionery or bakery products.

Products containing ingredients such as glucose syrups, sugar, fats, color-ants and flavourings that are used in the production of extruded sugar confectionery.

Sweet food products, particularly sugar confectionery.

Marine eels within the family Congridae, which includes several species targeted for consumption. Important species include Conger conger (from the Eastern Atlantic Ocean around Europe), C. oceanicus (from the Western Atlantic) and C. verrauxi (caught around the coasts of Australia and New Zealand). Conger eels are often consumed smoked or semi-preserved in jelly.

One of the main soy proteins, present as β-conglycinin, which is composed of α, α′ and β subunits. The 7S β-conglycinin and 11S glycinin together account for approximately 70% of the storage proteins in soybeans.

Alternative term for γ-glutamyl hydrolases.

Group of linoleic acid isomers having conjugated double bonds, especially the isomer cis-9,trans-11-octadecadienoic acid. Occurs naturally in ruminant fats, especially milk fats. Thought to have beneficial effects on health, especially anticarcinogenicity, anti-atherosclerosis activity, enhancement of immune function, and improvement of lipids metabolism and body composition. Commonly abbreviated to CLA.

Elastic protein found in muscle foods (meat and fish), in which it is important for texture and tenderness. Similar to titin.

Tissues that connect, bind, support or separate other organs or tissues. Connective tissues include cartilage, ligaments, tendons, adipose tissues, the non-muscular structures of blood vessels and the matrix of bones. In fish, collagen connective tissues separate the myotomes (muscle segments). In animals, connective tissues consisting of both collagen and elastin bind muscle fibres into bundles and support the blood vessels. Toughness of meat is correlated with connective tissue content. On cooking, the collagen component of connective tissues is converted into gelatin, thereby making meat more tender; however, the elastin component is unchanged on heating. Frying or roasting have little effect on meat tenderness, but tough meat is made more tender by stewing.

Common name for seeds produced by Tetracarpidium conophorum. They have a bitter taste when raw, but are palatable when boiled and are a popular snack in Nigeria. Also used as a source of oils.

Texture term relating to the degree to which a product, usually a thick liquid, is viscous or dense. The simplest method to determine consistency is to measure the time it takes for the food to run through a small hole of a known diameter. Alternatively, measurements can be made of the time it takes for more viscous foods to flow down an inclined plane using Bostwick consistometers. These devices might be used with tomato ketchups, honeys or sugar syrups.

Instruments used to measure the uniformity and consistency of a manufactured material, such as a food product. The Bostwick consistometer is widely used to evaluate consistency of food suspensions. The Bostwick measurement is the length of flow recorded in a specified time.

Clear soups made by clarifying broths, usually fish or meat based. May be served hot or cold. Sometimes used as bases for sauces. The term double consomme refers to one which has been reduced to half its original volume, thereby increasing the flavour.

Extent to which a commercial product is considered satisfactory by consumers. In the case of foods and beverages, overall accept-ability is judged on the basis of a number of factors, including sensory properties, physical properties such as colour, appearance and texture. Evaluation of consumer acceptability is important in development and marketing of new products.

Expression of dissatisfaction made by consumers regarding a commercial product or service. With respect to foods and beverages, the term covers complaints made at a local level, e.g. regarding the acceptability of a meal served in a restaurant, through to those reported to official agencies, e.g. regarding contamination of products with foreign objects or food poisoning incidents.

Provision of a variety of forms of training to consumers so as to increase their knowledge of a product or service.

Information, such as guidelines and details of use, given to consumers so as to increase their awareness of products and services.

Groups of consumers employed during sensory analysis tests who are not specifically trained but can provide a good insight into consumer preference.

Extent to which consumers like one commercial product more than others. In the case of foods and beverages, preference is governed by a range of factors, including sensory properties, appearance, physical properties, texture, health concerns, price and type of packaging. Evaluation of consumer preference variables is important in development and marketing of new products.

Any form of marketing research undertaken using the final consumers of a product or service from which to gather data. For example, consumer preference data are obtained and information is gathered on the way in which consumers in a free market choose to divide their total expenditure in purchasing goods and services.

Behaviour that consumers exhibit when provided with information in areas such as product purchase, new product development and product labelling. Covers concepts such as consumer attitudes, consumer awareness, consumer choice, consumer complaints, consumer expectations and consumer preference.

Marketing research tools used to gather data on consumer response to a particular product or service.

As well as being the action or process of eating foods, this term also means the using up of goods created by production in an economic sense.

Term applied to any material or article coming into contact with foods or beverages. packaging materials and equipment, Includes cooking utensils, cutlery, preparation surfaces and processing equipment.

Receptacles for holding, storing or transporting substances such as foods. Of many different types, and made from a variety of materials. The term is also used to describe large, portable, standard-sized metal boxes, which are used in the transportation of cargo on lorries or ships.

Agents that contaminate. May be undesirable substances (e.g. residues of pesticides, fungicides, herbicides or fertilizers) or undesirable or harmful microorganisms.

Process of introducing contaminants, or the presence of contaminants.

Automated processing systems which operate in a continuous fashion. Such systems allow improved product consistency and reduced manufacturing costs, and are designed to meet the demand for high output.

Decrease in volume or length of an object. Includes muscle contractions generally, and the temperature-related cold shortening of muscle fibres in meat during chilling. Also used to describe changes in dough volume during proofing, and temperature-related changes in solution volumes.

Systems in which inputs and outputs are progressively altered in a well-planned way to cause a process or mechanism to conform to some specified behaviour under a set of given constraints. Computer-based control systems for large industrial plants can involve control of hundreds or thousands of individual variables. Recent developments in control engineering include self-tuning and adaptive control systems, in which controller settings are modified automatically in response to changing process and/or disturbance conditions, and the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence techniques, which mimic the actions of skilled human operators.

Packaging technique in which specified concentrations of gases, including water vapour, are maintained throughout storage to achieve the desired atmosphere. Used to extend the shelf life of foods, particularly fresh fruits and vegetables.

Storage of fruits and vegetables in sealed warehouses where temperature and humidity are closely controlled, and the composition of gases in the atmosphere is altered to minimize spoilage. Usually, the concentration of oxygen is reduced, the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) is increased, and ethylene, a gas naturally produced by plants that accelerates ripening, is removed from the atmosphere. This controlled environment helps slow the enzymic reactions that eventually lead to decomposition and decay, and may increase the time that produce can be stored by several months. Ripening rooms, in which ethylene gas is added to the atmosphere, also help produce higher quality fruits and vegetables. This technology enables produce to be picked before it is ripe, for easier handling, and then ripened quickly and uniformly under controlled conditions.

Processed foods that can be quickly and easily prepared by the consumer. Examples include ready to eat meals, cooked sliced meat, sauces for pasta and pizzas and microwaveable foods.

Process by which items are transported or carried to a particular place.

A continuous moving band used for transporting objects from one place to another. Conveyors include simple chutes, unpowered roller conveyors, and a range of powered systems in which materials are carried along by belt, bucket, screw, trolley, or other arrangement. Pneumatic conveyors are tubes in which goods - usually in a finely divided form are moved along by blowers.

Member of the pyrimidine glucoside class of antinutrients occurring in faba beans, broad beans and other legumes, which causes the haemolytic disease favism in susceptible people.

Foods, particularly ready meals, produced by cook chill processing and kept at low temperatures (<5°C) from manufacture to point of sale. The minimal processing involved results in high-quality convenience foods with a short shelf life. Generally packaged in plastics trays, as either ready to eat foods or easily reheatable products.

A method of catering that involves cooking of foods in batches to a just done status followed by immediate, fast chilling (using blast chilling or water bath chilling techniques) to just above freezing point. Products are then stored for reheating at a later time. The cook chill process offers a cost effective means of providing quality food while reducing overhead costs.

Appliances for cooking foods, domestic cookers typically consisting of an oven, hob and grill.

US term for biscuits. Compared with other types of biscuit, cookies tend to be larger, with a softer, chewier texture. In some parts of the UK, the term refers to sweet buns that are filled with cream or topped with icings.

Process of preparation of foods by mixing, combining and heating the ingredients. Heat-activated cooking methods take five basic forms. Food may be immersed in liquids such as water, stocks, or wines (boiling, poaching, stewing); immersed in fats or oils (frying); exposed to vapour (steaming and, to some extent, braising); exposed to dry heat (roasting, baking, broiling); and subjected to contact with hot fats (sauteing).

Fatty substances such as butter, margarines and vegetable shortenings which are solid at room temperature and are used to moisten, enrich, tenderize and flavour foods during cooking.

Fatty substances which are liquid at room temperature and have usually been refined, bleached and deodorized. May be used for deep frying, or in baking, frying and grilling of foods.

Ability of a food product to have acceptable properties upon cooking, particularly relating to texture, flavour and colour.

Devices or containers for making or keeping items cool.

Process by which the temperature of items is lowered, usually after some form of cooking.

Business organizations that are owned and run jointly by their members, with profits or benefits shared among them. For example, farmers have formed cooperatives for many purposes, including marketing of produce, purchasing of production and home supplies, and provision of credit. Farm marketing associations are the most important type of agricultural cooperative. Farm purchasing cooperatives rank second in importance.

Italian raw, fermented pork sausages. Traditionally prepared from entire swine neck muscles, which are deboned and sliced before curing and ripening in casings. However, some coppa may include ingredients such as air-dried neck of pork, swine skin and cartilage. At least three groups of microorganisms (lactic acid bacteria, Micrococcaceae and yeasts) are active in the ripening of coppa. Coppas are usually served in slices.

Mineral, chemical symbol Cu, which is an essential nutrient, but toxic in excess. Copper and its alloys (brass, bronze) may be used in construction of food processing equipment. Copper ions are prooxidative, and may cause taints in wines.

Dried white flesh of coconuts (Cocos nucifera) from which coconut oils are extracted.

Alternative term for coconut oils.

Edible fungi, commonly consumed species including Coprinus comatus and C. cinereus. Also known as ink cap mushrooms, some species being used in manufacture of ink.

Term which refers to two types of product: concentrated and sweetened fruit-based beverages; and sweet liqueurs.

Utensils used to remove the tough central part of various fruits and vegetables, particularly apples. Corers are usually made of stainless steel and come in different shapes for different uses. An all-purpose corer has a medium-length shaft with a circular cutting ring at the end. An apple corer shaped like a spoked wheel with handles not only cores the apple, but cuts it into wedges as well. A corer for pineapples is a tall, arch-handled utensil with two serrated, concentric cutting rings at the base. After the top and bottom of the pineapples are sliced off, the corer is inserted from the top and twisted downward. The tool not only removes the core, but also the outer shell, so producing pineapple rings.

Common name for Coriandrum sativum, an umbelliferous plant cultivated for its aromatic seeds and foliage. Seeds are a major component of curry powders and are also used as a pickling spice and in flavourings for meat products and other food products. Seed essential oils are also widely used for flavouring purposes, as are the fresh leaves, which are added to foods to impart a delicate, citrus-and parsley-like flavour. Also known as cilantro.

Process by which the tough central part of various fruits and vegetables is removed, often using corers.

Genus of fungi of the class Hymenomycetes. Species may be used in production of laccases (e.g. Coriolus versicolor and C. hirsutus), or in the decoloration of brown food pigments. C. versicolor may also be used in the bioremediation of food factories effluents and food factories wastes.

Plant disorder affecting apples and pears. Characterized by large brown spots in the fruit flesh and fruit deformation, with a pitted appearance. Caused by low levels of calcium in affected fruits due to any of a number of factors.

Aroma and flavour defect of wines caused by contamination with 2,4,6-trichloroanisole, which may be present in the corks used to close the bottles.

Closures for bottles, particularly wine bottles, or jars. Made from cork, as it is a material which can be compressed to a smaller size and resists absorption of liquids. A sensory defect, known as corking, may occur in wines due to growth of microorganisms on corks. There is also the risk of release of substances such as trichloroanisole, tannins and peroxides from the corks into the food or beverage contained in the bottle or jar. Synthetic closures made from plastics have been developed as an alternative to natural cork closures for wine bottles. Crown corks are closures made from metal.

Grains, also known as maize, from any of numerous varieties of a tall, annual cereal plant (Zea mays), which are borne on large ears. Low in tryptophan. Niacin is present in bound form, making development of the deficiency disease pellagra a possibility in those eating corn as a staple. Corn is processed into a great many products, including corn oils, corn starch, corn syrups, flour and corn masa. It is also used in making some kinds of beer, whisky and gin. Some types of corn have a hard endosperm and kernels that burst on heating; these are used to make popcorn.

Outer protective coating of corn kernels; removed during milling.

Bread in which the main cereal component is corn flour. May also contain wheat flour or, for gluten free bread, rice flour. Arepas are flat corn bread products popular in South America. Generally spelt cornbread in the USA, where various sweet or savoury flavourings may be added, and shape, texture and thickness of the products are varied according to taste.

Crisp snack foods made from corn masa batters, shaped into flat triangles and fried.

Flowering organs of Zea mays, composed of inner and outer leaf-like organs (glumes) which fold around the corn kernels, a woody ring of lignified conducting tissue, and an inner pith. Often used as a source of furfural. Waste corn cobs are used as substrates for production of various fermentation products including enzymes, ethanol and sugar.

Sausages, especially frankfurters, coated in a heavy corn flour batter and cooked by frying or baking. Usually served on a stick.

By-products of the corn processing industry which are rich in cholesterol-lowering phytosterols and of potential use in the manufacture of nutraceutical foods. Produced during wet milling of corn.

Flour often ground from a variety of corn with large, soft grains and friable endosperm, from which the germ and outer hull are first removed. Also known as maize meal. Distinct from cornflour, which is used as an alternative term for corn starch.

Dried corn flour or dough made from this. Produced by cooking and steeping corn grains in unslaked lime followed by rinsing, grinding and drying. Used in manufacture of tortillas and related products.

Pale yellow oils derived from wet grinding the kernels of corn (Zea mays). Typically bland in flavour and widely used as a cooking oil and salad oil and in the manufacture of margarines. Palmitic acid, oleic acid and linoleic acid are the major fatty acids. Oxidative stability is high, despite the highly unsaturated nature. Also known as maize oils.

Starch isolated from corn. Common substrate for manufacture of syrups.

One of the by-products of processing corn to manufacture corn starch. The brown, syrupy liquid is rich in lactic acid and phytic acid as well as containing a range of amino acids, proteins, peptides, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals. It is used as a fermentation substrate in production of substances such as enzymes, polysaccharides and antibiotics by microorganisms.

Nutritive sweeteners manufactured by partial hydrolysis of corn starch. Corn syrups are a mixture of glucose, maltose and maltodextrins produced by acid hydrolysis of corn starch at >100°C, followed by enzymic hydrolysis if required. Degree of hydrolysis required depends on the final application of the syrup; commonly, 40-60% of glycosidic bonds are hydrolysed, i.e. the corn syrups have a dextrose equivalent of between 40 and 60, although corn syrups of 24-80 dextrose equivalents are also produced. Corn syrups are approximately half as sweet as sucrose, although sweetness increases with increased hydrolysis. In addition to their use as sweeteners, corn syrups are used as thickeners, humectants, carbon sources for microbial fermentation and to provide body to soft drinks and beer.

In the UK, corned beef describes beef that is brined, chopped, pressed and sold in tins. Conversely, in North America, corned beef describes beef brisket that is cured in seasoned brine and boiled; it is usually served cold.

Fruits of the wild dogwood (Cornus mas). Eaten fresh or made into preserves and marmalades. Also used to make alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages.

Breakfast cereals made from corn, often enriched with vitamins.

Alternative term for corn starch.

Meat pies traditionally made in Cornwall, United Kingdom. Each pasty consists of a folded pastry case filled with seasoned meat and vegetables, especially potatoes.

Diseases of the heart resulting from narrowing of the coronary arteries resulting in myocardial ischaemia and/or infarction. Narrowing or occlusion of the arteries can be a consequence of atherosclerosis or thrombosis. Risk factors for coronary heart diseases have been identified, and include dietary, genetic and lifestyle factors.

Group of compounds containing four reduced pyrrole rings joined into a macrocyclic ring (the corrin nucleus). Includes vitamin B12. Many corrinoids have a cobalt atom in the centre of the macrocyclic ring. The B12 vitamins are found in animal foods but not plant foods. Corrinoids are also produced by bacteria.

Steroid which occurs in animal tissues. May be used as an indicator of stress in slaughter animals, and of meat quality.