Gene transfer

Moving foreign genes into cells or organisms is gene transfer, the umbrella term for the techniques behind genetic modification. Bacteria take up plasmids by transformation, viruses ferry genes by transduction, and gene guns or Agrobacterium deliver them into plant cells. Food biotechnology uses these routes to build production strains for enzymes, vitamins and flavourings, and to engineer crops with new traits. Containment, marker removal and regulatory approval govern every step, since an introduced gene must be stable, characterised and safe.